Kirkuk (Template:Lang-ar,kirkūk; Kurdish: Kerkûk; The present city of Kirkuk stands on the site of the ancient Assyrian city of Arrapha (Template:Lang-ar) and sits near the Khasa River (Template:Lang-ar) on the ruins of a 5,000-year-old settlement. Kirkuk reached great importance under the Assyrians in the 10th and 11th centuries BC. Because of the strategic geographical ___location of the city, Kirkuk was the battle ground for the three main empires, Assyrian, Babylonian and Medes, who controlled the city at various times . [1]
One theory states that the name Kirkuk is derived from the Assyrian name Karkha D-Bet Slokh (Template:Lang-ar), which means 'siege wall'. The cuneiform script found in 1927 at the foot of Kirkuk Citadel (Template:Lang-ar) stated that the city of Erekha of Babylonia was on the site of Kirkuk. Other sources consider Erekha to have been simply one part of the larger Arrapha metropolis. The region around Kirkuk was known during the Sassanid period as Garmakan, which means the 'Land of Warmth' or the 'Hot Land'. The Turkmen of Kirkuk believe that the word Kirkuk started to be used for the first time by the Turkmen State Kara Koyunlu (1375–1468). According to Turkmen tradition, the name of the city comes from their word Kerk, meaning 'beauty'. [2]
Kirkuk is the centre of the northern Iraqi petroleum industry. It is an historically and ethnically mixed city populated by Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Arabs, and Armenians. It is located at 35.47°N, 44.41°E, in the Iraqi province of at-Ta'mim, 250 kilometres (156 miles) north of the capital, Baghdad. The Kirkuk region lies between the Zagros Mountains to the north-east, the Zab River and the Tigris River to the west, the Hamrin Mountains (Template:Lang-ar) to the south, and the Sirwan (Diyala) River to the south-east. The population was estimated to stand at 755,700 in 2003.
Oil field
In 1927 a huge oil gusher was discovered at Baba Gurgur near Kirkuk. The Kirkuk oil field was brought into use by the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC) in [[1934] and has ever since remained the basis of northern Iraqi oil production with over tenbillion barrels (1.6 km³) of proven remaining oil reserves as of 1998. After about seven decades of operation, Kirkuk still produces up to one million barrels a day, almost half of all Iraqi oil exports. The facilities have been frequently sabotaged during the fighting between Iraqi forces and the Kurds.
Some analysts believe that poor reservoir-management practices during the Saddam Hussein years may have seriously, and even permanently, damaged Kirkuk's oil field. One example showed an estimated 1.5 billion barrels of excess fuel oil being reinjected. Other problems include refinery residue and gas-stripped oil. Fuel oil reinjection has increased oil viscosity at Kirkuk making it more difficult and expensive to get the oil out of the ground. [3]
Overall, between April 2003 and late December 2004 there were an estimated 123 attacks on Iraqi energy infrastructures, including the country's 4,350 mile-long pipeline system. In response to these attacks, which have cost Iraq billions of US dollars in lost oil-export revenues and repair costs, the US military set up the Task Force Shield to guard Iraq's energy infrastructure and the Kirkuk-Ceyhan Oil Pipeline in particular. In spite of the fact that little damage was done to Iraq's oil fields during the war itself, looting and sabotage after the war ended was highly destructive and accounted for perhaps eighty percent of the total damage. [4]
The discovery of vast quantities of oil in the region after World War I provided the impetus for the annexation of the former Ottoman Wilayah of Mosul (of which the Kirkuk region was a part), to the Iraqi Kingdom, established in 1921. Since then and particularly from 1963 onwards, there have been continuous attempts to transform the ethnic make-up of the region.
Pipelines from Kirkuk run through Turkey to Ceyhan on the Mediterranean Sea and were one of the two main routes for the export of Iraqi oil under the Oil-for-Food Programme following the Gulf War of 1991. This was in accordance with a United Nations mandate that at least 50% of the oil exports pass through Turkey. There were two parallel lines built in 1977 and 1987.
Demographics
Major historic ethnic groups of Kirkuk are Kurds, Turkmen, Arabs, Assyrians and Chaldeans. The city of Kirkuk was long known as a city where people of different ethnic groups lived together in peace, but this changed starting in the 1980s during the regime of Saddam Hussein. Kurds and Turkmen were forced from Kirkuk and outlying villages where they had been living since the time of the British occupation of Iraq, to be replaced with Arab oilfield workers in Saddam's Arabization plan of the Al-Anfal Campaign.
On January 26, 2004, the Los Angeles Times quoted Barham Salih, Prime Minister for the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, one of two main political parties controlling the Kurdish Autonomous Region in northern Iraq. Kirkuk is a benchmark by which most Kurds would define their legitimacy in Iraq, he said. "We have a claim to Kirkuk rooted in history, geography and demographics. This is a recipe for civil war if you don't do it right". However, many say that the Kurds only want Kirkuk for its oil and don´t really have a special interest in the city itself.The Arabs and Turkmen claim the same, and both insist that they were the historic ethnic group in Kirkuk. Arabs and Turkmen are often united nowadays against the Kurdish claims over the city. [5]
According to the Kurds, the conquerors of Kurdistan have tried to destroy the numerous Kurdish emirates one after the other. One may consider the time of occupation of the Kirkuk area by the Safavid Dynasty during the reign of Shah Ismail I as the point in time at which the enforced settlement of Turkmen in the area began. The Safavid tried to impose the Shi'a faith on the Kurds, in an attempt to replace the Sunni Muslim whom they did not trust. Apart from their historical claim for Kirkuk, the Kurds invoke Article 58 of the Adminstration for the state of Iraq for the transitional period, also known as Adminstrative Law of March 8, 2004 which is considered the interim constitution of Iraq by the now-dissolved Iraqi Governing Council. Article 58 states in part: The Iraqi Transitional Government shall act expeditious measures to remedy the injustice caused by the previous regime's practice in the demographic character of certain regions, including Kirkuk, by deporting and expelling them from their place of residence and forcing migration in and out of the region. [6]
According to the Turkmen themselves, they migrated to Iraq during the Umayyads and Abbasid eras because they were in demand by these rulers as a result of their prowess in battle. However, they acknowledge that this period of their residence in Iraq was one of introduction rather than settlement and therefore the Turkmen of that era were integrated into the existing population. They believe that real settlement began during the Seljuq era when Toghrul entered Iraq in 1055 with his army composed mostly of Oghuz Turks. Kirkuk remained under the control of the Seljuq Empire for 63 years. The Turkmen settlement in Kirkuk was further expanded later during the Ottoman Era.The Iraqi historian Abdul-Razzak Al-Hassani (Template:Lang-ar) asserts that the Turkmen of this region are: "part of the forces of Sultan Murad IV, who recaptured Iraq from the Safavid in 1638, and remained in these parts to protect this route between the southern and northern Ottoman Wilayahs". [7]
Originally there were only two Arab extended families in the city of Kirkuk: the Tikriti and the Hadidi (Template:Lang-ar). The Tikriti family was the main Arab family in Kirkuk coming from Syria in 1600s with the Ottoman Sultan Murad IV as did the ancestors of Turkmen. As a reward for their help, the sultan gave the Tikriti family the villages and land in the southwest of Kirkuk plus the small city of Tikrit. Other Arab tribes who settled in Kirkuk during the Monarchy Period are the Al-Ubaid (Template:Lang-ar) and the Al-Jiburi (Template:Lang-ar). The Al-Ubaid came from just northwest of Mosul when they were forced out of the area by other Arab tribes. They settled in the Hawija (Template:Lang-ar)district in Kirkuk in 1935 during the government of Yasin al-Hashimi (Template:Lang-ar). [8]
For generations Kirkuk was Iraq's melting pot where the country's diverse ethnic and religious groups lived in relative peace. Today, Kirkuk's ethnic balance is threatened by Iraqi insurgency, the Kurds and other long-oppressed groups thirsting for justice and power in post-Saddam Hussein Iraq.
At present there is surprisingly little sectarian violence, while political leaders quarrel over who will control Kirkuk. Newly powerful Kurds, who hold the second greatest share of seats in the Iraqi National Assembly insist that Kirkuk be included in the Kurdish Autonomous Region in the north. However, Sunni Arabs and Turkmen want the city controlled by Iraq's central government in Baghdad, 150 miles south. This dispute virtually derailed the creation of Iraq's new government: Kurds refused to support the new government without a guarantee that Kirkuk would be part of Kurdish Autonomous Region, and Shiites, who hold the majority of seats in the Iraqi National Assembly, refused to give in.
Ancient Monuments in Kirkuk
- The Prophet Daniel's Tomb (Template:Lang-ar)
- AL Qaysareyah Market (Template:Lang-ar)
- The Qishla of Kirkuk (Template:Lang-ar)
- Kirkuk Citadel (Template:Lang-ar)
- Qal'at Jarmo (Template:Lang-ar)
1970 Autonomy Agreement
On paper, the Autonomy Agreement of March 11, 1970, recognized the legitimacy of Kurdish nationalism and guaranteed Kurdish participation in government and Kurdish language teaching in schools. However, it reserved judgment on the territorial extent of Kurdistan, pending a new census. Such a census, according to Kurds would surely have shown a solid Kurdish majority in the city of Kirkuk and the surrounding oilfields, as well as in the secondary oil-bearing area of Khanaqin (Template:Lang-ar), south of the city of As Sulaymaniyah (Template:Lang-ar). A census was not scheduled until 1977, by which time the autonomy deal was dead. In June 1973, with Ba'ath-Kurdish relations already souring, the legendary guerrilla leader Mullah Mustafa Barzani laid formal claim to the Kirkuk oilfields. Baghdad interpreted this as a virtual declaration of war, and, in March 1974, unilaterally decreed an autonomy statute. The new statute was a far cry from the 1970 Manifesto, and its definition of the Kurdish autonomous area explicitly excluded the oil-rich areas of Kirkuk, Khanaqin and Jabal Sinjar. In tandem with the 1970–1974 autonomy process, the Iraqi regime carried out a comprehensive administrative reform, in which the country's sixteen provinces, or governorates, were renamed and in some cases had their boundaries altered. The old province of Kirkuk was split in half. The area around the city itself was named At-Ta'mim(Template:Lang-ar) ("nationalization"), and its boundaries were redrawn to give an Arab majority.[9]
Ethnic cleansing
In 1975, the Iraqi government embarked on a sweeping campaign to "Arabize" the areas that had been excluded from Kurdistan under the offer of autonomy in 1970. Restrictions were imposed, and maintained throughout the following years, on the employment and residence of Kurds in the Kirkuk area. Arab tribes from southern Iraq were enticed to move to the north with government benefits and offers of housing. Uprooted Kurdish farmers were sent to new homes in rudimentary government-controlled camps along the main highways. Some were forcibly relocated to the flat and desolate landscapes of southern Iraq, including thousands of refugees from the Barzani tribal areas who returned from Iran in late 1975 under a general amnesty. In November 1975, an Iraqi official acknowledged that some fifty-thousand Kurds had been deported to the southern districts of Nasiriya and Diwaniya, although the true figure was almost certainly higher.[10]
According to Human Rights Watch, from the 1991 Gulf War until 2003, the former Iraqi government systematically expelled an estimated 120,000 Kurds, Turkmens, and Assyrians from Kirkuk and other towns and villages in this oil-rich region. Most have settled in the Kurdish-controlled northern provinces. Meanwhile, the Iraqi government resettled Arab families in their place in an attempt to reduce the political power and presence of ethnic minorities, a process known as Arabization.[11] The "Arabization" of Kirkuk and other oil-rich regions is not a recent phenomenon. Successive governments have sought at various times to reduce the ethnic minority populations residing there since the discovery of significant oil deposits in the 1920s. By the mid-1970s, the Ba'ath Party government that seized power in 1968 embarked on a concerted campaign to alter the demographic makeup of multi-ethnic Kirkuk. The campaign involved the massive relocation of tens of thousands of ethnic minority families from Kirkuk, Sinjar, Khaniqin, and other areas, transferring them to purpose-built resettlement camps. This policy was intensified after the failed Kurdish uprising in March 1991.([12], [13], [14], [15], [16] and [17]) Those expelled included individuals who had refused to sign so-called "nationality correction" forms, introduced by the authorities prior to the 1997 population census, requiring members of ethnic groups residing in these districts to relinquish their Kurdish or Turkman identities and to register officially as Arabs. The Iraqi authorities also seized their property and assets; those who were expelled to areas controlled by Kurdish opposition forces were stripped of all possessions and their ration cards were withdrawn.[18]
Kirkuk in Post-Saddam Iraq
Following the March 2003 invasion of Iraq, led by American and British military forces, which drove Saddam Hussein and his Ba'ath Party from power, Coalition Provisional Authority was created as a caretaker administration in Iraq until the creation of a democratically elected government. Since April 2003, thousands of internally displaced Kurds, Turkmens and others have returned to Kirkuk and other Arabized regions to reclaim their homes and lands which have since been occupied by Arabs from central and southern Iraq. These returnees were forcibly expelled from their homes by the government of Saddam Hussein during the 1980s and 1990s. Under the supervision of chief executive of Coalition Provisional Authority L. Paul Bremer, a convention was held in May 24, 2003 to select the first City Council in the history of this oil-rich, ethnically divided city. Each of the city's four major ethnic groups was invited to send a 39-member delegation from which they would be allowed to select six to sit on the City Council. Another six council members were selected from among 144 delegates to represent independents social groups such as teachers, lawyers, religious leaders and artists. Kirkuk's 30 members council is made up of five blocs of six members each. Four of those blocs are formed along ethnic lines-Kurdish, Arab, Assyrian and Turkmen- and the fifth is made up ofindependents. Turkmen and Arabs complained , however, that Kurds hold five of the seats in the independent bloc. they are also frustrated that their only representative at the council's helm is an assistant mayor whom they consider pro-Kurdish. Abdul Rahman Mustafa (Template:Lang-ar), a Baghdad-educated lawyer was elected mayor by 20 votes to 10. The appointment of an Arab, Ismail Ahmed Rajab Al Hadidi (Template:Lang-ar), as deputy mayor went some way towards addressing Arab concerns. Kirkuk, Iraq's biggest oil-producing city and thus a plum in the postwar redistricting, still crackles with ethnic tension despite a more functional public service network than other larger Iraqi cities. But Saddam Hussein focused his drive for Arabization of Kirkuk, ethnically engineering the Kurdish majority out of existence by expelling an estimated 250,000 Kurds from the area and giving or selling their homes to Arabs. Spontaneous efforts to reverse that injustice have brought hordes of armed young Kurds to the city at night to chase away the Arab settlers. Numerous people have been killed in recent violence. Kurdish leaders have appealed to their constituents to be patient and let a legal process determine property rights. [19] [20]
References
- Human Rights Watch Report: Kurdish Autonomy and Arabization, 1993
- Human Rights Developments in Government-controlled Iraq, 2001
- IRAQ: PEOPLE COME FIRST, 2003
- International Humanitarian Law Issues In A Potential War In Iraq, 2003
- Amnesty International Report: Decades of human rights abuse in Iraq, 2003
- Reversing Arabization of Kirkuk, 2004
- Iraq: In Kurdistan, Land Disputes Fuel Unrest, 2004
- Insurgents stir up strife in Kirkuk
- Kurds flee Iraqi town, March 15, 2003; named Kurds' preferred capital.
- Key Targets in Iraq, Anthony H. Cordesman, CSIS, February 1998; information about the oil resources and facilities.
- Brief Summary of Kirkuk History
- Kirkuk, Past and Present.
- Kirkuk the city of light and fire.
- Arabization of the Kirkuk Region.
- Kirkuk in Old Ages.
- Numerous research about Kirkuk.