Utente:Drow/Sandbox

Christopher Eccleston (born 16 February 1964) is an English actor, known for his role as the ninth incarnation of the Doctor in the British television series Doctor Who. In addition to his extensive television work, he has appeared on stage and in films such as Let Him Have It, Shallow Grave, Jude, Elizabeth, Gone in 60 Seconds, The Others, 28 Days Later, The Seeker, G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra, and Thor: The Dark World.

Biografia

Nato in una famiglia della classe operaia a Langworthy nell'area di Pendleton, Salford, Lancashire, Eccleston è il più giovane dei tre figli di Elsie e Ronnie Eccleston.^[1] I suoi fratelli, Alan e Keith, sono gemelli, più grandi di lui di otto anni.^[2][3] La famiglia ha vissuto in una piccola villetta a schiera in Blodwell Street fino alla fine degli anni '60, quando si trasferirono a Little Hulton.^[4][5] Eccleston studiò al Joseph Eastham High School, dove divenne head boy^{[senza fonte]}. All'età di 19 anni, venne ispirato alla professione di attore da fiction televisive come Boys from the Blackstuff.

Eccleston completò un Performance Foundation Course di due anni alla Salford Tech^[6] prima di passare ad esercitarsi presso la Central School of Speech and Drama.^[7] Come attore, fu influenzato nei suoi primi anni dal film di Ken Loach Kes e dalla performance di Albert Finney in Sabato sera, domenica mattina, ma ben presto si trovò a svolgere i classici, comprese opere di Shakespeare, Chekhov e Molière. All'età di 25 anni, Eccleston fece il suo debutto professionale nella produzione della Bristol Old Vic Un tram che si chiama Desiderio. Sottoccupato come attore per alcuni anni dopo la laurea, Eccleston fece una serie di lavoretti in un supermercato, nei cantieri edili, e come modello per un artista.

Career

Early work (1991–2005)

Il primo ruolo di Eccleston noto all'attenzione pubblica è stato quello di Derek Bentley nel film del 1991 Let Him Have It; nello stesso periodo egli compare in un episodio dell'Ispettore Morse, "Second Time Around". Un ruolo regolare nella serie televisiva Cracker (1993-1994) lo portò alla notorietà nel Regno Unito, ruolo da cui si tolse volontariamente facendo uccidere il suo personaggio dal serial killer Albie Kinsella, interpretato dal famoso attore Robert Carlyle, nell'ottobre del 1994.

Eccleston first came to public attention as Derek Bentley in the 1991 film Let Him Have It and an episode of Inspector Morse, "Second Time Around", also in 1991. A regular role in the television series Cracker (1993–94) brought him recognition in the UK and, after he told TV bosses of his desire to leave the series, they killed off his character in October 1994, making him a victim of the serial killer Albie Kinsella (Robert Carlyle). At around the same time, Eccleston appeared in the episode "One, Two, Buckle My Shoe" of the Poirot series adapted from mysteries by Agatha Christie.

He appeared in the low-budget Danny Boyle 1994 film Shallow Grave, in which he co-starred with actor Ewan McGregor. The same year, he won the part of Nicky Hutchinson in the epic BBC drama serial Our Friends in the North, whose broadcast on BBC Two in 1996 helped make him a household name in the UK. Eccleston starred in an ensemble cast that included actors Mark Strong and Gina McKee as well as Daniel Craig. In 1996, he took the part of Trevor Hicks - a man who lost both of his daughters in the 1989 Hillsborough disaster - in the television drama film Hillsborough, penned by Jimmy McGovern. In real life, he was the best man to Trevor Hicks at his marriage in March 2009.^[8]

His film career has since taken off with a variety of high-profile roles, including the title role in Jude (1996), Elizabeth (1998), eXistenZ (1999), Gone in 60 Seconds (2000), The Others (2001), 24 Hour Party People (2002), and 28 Days Later (2002). He played a major role as the protagonist of the 2002 Revengers Tragedy, adapted from Thomas Middleton's play of the same name.^[9] He starred in the independent films A Price Above Rubies (1998) and The Invisible Circus (2001). He starred in the car-heist film Gone in 60 Seconds, but did not take his driving test until January 2004. He said on BBC's Top Gear that his licence restricts him to vehicles with automatic transmission.

He has appeared in a variety of television roles, especially in British dramas. These have included Hearts and Minds (1995) for Channel 4, Clocking Off (2000) and Flesh and Blood (2002) for the BBC and Hillsborough (1996), a modern version of Othello (2001), playing 'Ben Jago', (the Iago character); and the religious telefantasy epic The Second Coming (2003) for ITV, in which he played Steve Baxter, the son of God. He has made guest appearances in episodes of the comedy drama Linda Green (2001) and macabre sketch show The League of Gentlemen (2002). Eccleston appeared in a stage role in Hamlet in the 2002 production at Leeds's West Yorkshire Playhouse. March–April 2004 saw him return to the venue in a new play, Electricity.

Eccleston has been twice nominated in the Best Actor category at the British Academy Television Awards. His first nomination came in 1997 for Our Friends in the North, but he lost to Nigel Hawthorne (for The Fragile Heart). He was nominated in 2004 for The Second Coming; Bill Nighy won for State of Play. Eccleston won the Best Actor category at the 1997 Broadcasting Press Guild Awards for Our Friends in the North. In 2003 he won the RTS Best Actor award for a second time, for his performance in Flesh and Blood. In July 2004, a poll of industry experts, conducted by Radio Times magazine, voted Eccleston the "19th Most Powerful Person in Television Drama."

Doctor Who

Il 2 aprile 2004 venne annunciato che Eccleston avrebbe interpretato la nona incarnazione del Dottore nel rilancio della serie della BBC fantascientifica Doctor Who, che iniziò le trasmissioni il 26 marzo 2005. Eccleston è stato il primo attore ad interpretare il ruolo del Dottore nato dopo che la serie di Doctor Who era già cominciata, anche se per meno di tre mesi. Il 30 marzo 2005 la BBC ha rilasciato una dichiarazione, apparentemente di Eccleston, secondo cui egli aveva deciso di lasciare il ruolo del Dottore dopo una sola serie perché temeva di essere identificato con il ruolo, impedendogli l'assunzione a ruoli diversi (Typecasting). Il 4 aprile 2005, la BBC ha rivelato che la "dichiarazione" di Eccleston era stata falsamente attribuita e rilasciata senza il suo consenso. La BBC ammise di aver rotto un accordo stipulato in gennaio secondo cui essa non avrebbe dovuto divulgare pubblicamente che Eccleston avrebbe partecipato a una sola serie. La dichiarazione venne fatta a seguito delle domande fatte in proposito dai giornalisti per l'ufficio stampa.^[10]

L'11 giugno 2005, nel corso di un'intervista alla BBC radio, alla domanda se avesse goduto nel lavorare per Doctor Who, Eccleston rispose dicendo "Mixed, but that's a long story" ("Più o meno, ma è una lunga storia"). Le ragioni di Eccleston per lasciare il ruolo continuano ad essere dibattute nei giornali della Gran Bretagna: il 4 ottobre 2005 Alan Davies disse sul The Daily Telegraph che Eccleston era stato "oberato di lavoro" dalla BBC, e aveva lasciato il ruolo perché "esausto".^[11] Dieci giorni dopo, Eccleston disse al Daily Mirror che ciò non era vero, e espresse una certa irritazione a Davies per i suoi commenti.^[12] In un'intervista del 2010, Eccleston ha rivelato di aver lasciato lo show perché "non godeva l'ambiente e la cultura in cui il cast e la troupe hanno dovuto lavorare", ma che era orgoglioso di aver svolto il ruolo del Dottore.^[13]

Il 7 novembre 2008, presso il Royal National Theatre dov'era per promuovere il suo libro The Writer's Tale, Russell T. Davies disse che il contratto di Eccleston era di solo un anno perché non si era certi che lo spettacolo avrebbe continuato oltre una singola serie. Col senno di poi, disse, è stato un enorme successo, ma al tempo vi erano dei dubbi all'interno della BBC. Per la sua interpretazione del Dottore, Eccleston è stato votato come "Attore più popolare" ai National Television Awards del 2005.

Nel luglio del 2012, nel corso di una conferenza presso il Royal National Theatre Eccleston parlò positivamente del suo tempo in Doctor Who.^[14] Ciò portò alla speculazione secondo cui egli stava pensando di fare ritorno nel ruolo del Nono Dottore per il 50° anniversario dello show (fine 2013). Il Dottore attuale, Matt Smith, ha dichiarato che gli piacerebbe che Eccleston tornasse.^[15] Tuttavia, dopo aver discusso con il produttore esecutivo Steven Moffat, Eccleston ha rifiutato il ruolo.^[16]

Recent works (2005–present)

On 30 October 2005, Eccleston appeared on stage at the Old Vic theatre in London in the one-night play Night Sky alongside Navin Chowdhry, Bruno Langley, David Warner, Saffron Burrows and David Baddiel. Eccleston sat on the 2nd Amazonas International Film Festival Film Jury in November 2005. The director Norman Jewison was chairman of the Jury.^[17] In December 2005, Eccleston travelled to Indonesia's Aceh province for the BBC Breakfast news programme, examining how survivors of the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami were rebuilding their lives.^[18]

In March 2006, Eccleston appeared in the ITV documentary special Best Ever Muppet Moments as a commentator. In May 2006, he appeared as the narrator in a production of Romeo and Juliet at the Lowry theatre in his home city of Salford. The theatre company with which he performed, Celebrity Pig (of which he is patron), is made up of learning disabled actors. In August 2006, Eccleston filmed New Orleans, Mon Amour with Elisabeth Moss. The film was directed by Michael Almereyda and shot in post-Hurricane Katrina New Orleans. It was released in 2008 to film festivals in America and Italy.

Late in 2006 he starred in Perfect Parents, an ITV drama written and directed by Joe Ahearne, who had directed him in Doctor Who.^[19] Eccleston joined the cast of the NBC TV series Heroes in the episode "Godsend", which was broadcast on 22 January 2007. Eccleston played a character named Claude who has the power of invisibility, and helps Peter Petrelli with his powers.^[20] Eccleston appeared as the Rider in a film adaptation of Susan Cooper's novel The Dark Is Rising, which opened in the USA on 5 October 2007.

Eccleston appeared on the BBC Four World Cinema Award show in February 2008, arguing the merits of five international hits such as The Lives of Others and Pan's Labyrinth with Jonathan Ross and Archie Panjabi. In 2009, Eccleston starred opposite Archie Panjabi in a short film called The Happiness Salesman. Eccleston agreed to do the film because of Panjabi and the fact that it was a winner of the British Short Screenplay Competition. He also appeared as the villainous Destro in the G.I. Joe film, G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra.^[21] Eccleston also appeared in an episode of The Sarah Silverman Program as the titular cult favourite science fiction hero in a show-within-the-show called "Dr. Laser Rage", possibly in reference to his stint in Doctor Who.

Eccleston was cast as John Lennon in a BBC production called Lennon Naked which aired in the UK on 23 June 2010,^[22][23] with Eccleston playing the title role, and Naoko Mori, who had previously appeared with him in Doctor Who, as Yoko Ono. In November 2010, Eccleston starred in the first episode of BBC One anthology drama Accused. He won an International Emmy Award for his role. In May 2011, he starred as Joseph Bede in The Shadow Line, a seven-part television drama serial for BBC Two.

On 31 December 2011, Eccleston played the role of Pod Clock in an adaptation of Mary Norton's children's novel The Borrowers on BBC One. In July 2012, he starred in the political thriller Blackout on BBC One. In the same month, he starred as Creon in an adaptation of Antigone at the Royal National Theatre; his performance in the play was called "charismatic" and "intense".^[24]

Eccleston will play the villainous Malekith in the 2013 Thor sequel, entitled Thor: The Dark World.^[25]

Personal life

Eccleston è sposato ed è diventato padre del suo primo figlio, Albert, nel febbraio 2012.^[26][27] È ateo.^[28][29] È tifoso del Manchester United,^[30] ed è stato un maratoneta regolare fino al 2000.^[3][31] Nel settembre del 2007, come parte del suo piano di costruzione da 9,5 milioni di sterline, il Pendleton College di Salford ha nominato il suo nuovo teatro da 260 posti in onore di Eccleston - l'"Eccleston Theatre".^[32] Eccleston è un accanito sostenitore delle opere di beneficenza, ed è diventato un ambasciatore del Mencap il 28 aprile 2005;^[33] è inoltre un sostenitore della Croce Rossa Britannica.^[34]

Filmografia

Televisione

Anno	Titolo	Ruolo	Note
1990	Blood Rights	Dick
1990	Casualty	Stephen Hills
1991	L'Ispettore Morse	Terrence Mitchell
1991	Chancer	Radio
1991	Boon	Mark
1992	Rachel's Dream	Man in dream
1992	Poirot	Frank Carter	Episodio: "One, Two, Buckle My Shoe"
1992	Friday on my Mind	Sean Maddox
1992	Business with Friends	Angel Morris
1993–1994	Cracker	DCI David Bilborough
1995	Hearts and Minds	Drew Mackenzie
1996	Our Friends in the North	Nicky Hutchinson
1996	Hillsborough	Trevor Hicks
1999	Killing Time – The Millennium Poem	Millennium Man
2000	Wilderness Men	Alexander Von Humboldt
2000	Clocking Off	Jim Calvert
2001	Strumpet	Strayman
2001	Linda Green	Tom Sherry / Neil Sherry
2002	The League of Gentlemen	Dougal Siepp	Serie 3, Episodio 6: "How the Elephant Got Its Trunk"
2002	Flesh and Blood	Joe Broughton
2002	Othello	Ben Jago
2002	Sunday	General Ford
2002	The King and Us	Anthony
2003	The Second Coming	Stephen Baxter
2005	Doctor Who	Il Dottore	Serie 1
2005	Top Gear	Se stesso	Serie 6 Ep. 3
2006	Perfect Parents	Stuart
2007	Heroes	Claude
2008	The Sarah Silverman Program	Dr. Lazer Rage
2010	Lennon Naked	John Lennon
2010	Accused	Willy Houlihan	Serie 1, Episodio 1
2011	The Shadow Line	Joseph Bede
2011	The Borrowers	Pod Clock
2012	Blackout	Daniel Demoys
2014	The Leftovers	Matt Jamison	Serie in preparazione

Film

Anno	Titolo	Ruolo	Note
1991	Let Him Have It	Derek Bentley
1992	Death and the Compass	Alonso Zunz
1993	Anchoress	Un prete
1994	Piccoli omicidi tra amici	David
1996	Jude	Jude Fawley
1998	Elizabeth	Il Duca di Norfolk
1998	Il gioco dei rubini	Sender Horowitz
1999	Heart	Gary Ellis
1999	eXistenZ	Seminar leader
1999	With or Without You	Vincent Boyd
2000	Fuori in 60 secondi	Raymond Calitri
2000	The Tyre	Un venditore	Cortometraggio
2001	The Others	Charles Stewart
2001	Verità apparente	Wolf
2001	This Little Piggy	Cabbie	Cortometraggio
2002	24 Hour Party People	Boethius
2002	I Am Dina	Leo Zhukovsky
2002	Revengers Tragedy	Vindici
2002	28 giorni dopo	Maggiore Henry West
2007	Il risveglio delle tenebre	The Rider
2008	New Orleans, Mon Amour	Dr. Henry
2009	G.I. Joe - La nascita dei Cobra	James McCullen / Destro
2009	Amelia	Fred Noonan
2009	The Happiness Salesman	Il venditore	Cortometraggio
2012	Song for Marion	James
2013	Thor: The Dark World	Malekith

Altre interpretazioni

Teatro

Anno	Titolo	Ruolo	Note
1988	Un tram che si chiama Desiderio	Pablo Gonzalez	Bristol Old Vic
1990	Bent		National Theatre
1990	Abingdon Square		National Theatre
1990	Aide-Memoire		Royal Court Theatre
1993	Waiting at the Water's Edge	Will	Bush Theatre
2000	Miss Julie	Jean	Haymarket Theatre
2002	Amleto	Amleto	West Yorkshire Playhouse
2004	Electricity	Jakey	West Yorkshire Playhouse
2009	A Doll's House	Neil Kelman	Donmar Warehouse
2012	Antigone	Creon	National Theatre

Interpretazioni con data sconosciuta

• Woyzeck – Birmingham Rep
• The Wonder – Gate Theatre
• Doña Rosita the Spinster – Bristol Old Vic
• Encounters – National Theatre Studio

Radio and narration

Year	Title	Role
1998	Room of Leaves	Frank
1998	Pig Paradise	Jack
2001	Some Fantastic Place	Narrator
2001	Bayeux Tapestry	Harold
2002	The Importance of Being Morrissey	Narrator
2002	Iliad	Achilles
2003	Cromwell – Warts and All	Narrator
2004	Life Half Spent	Roger
2005	Crossing the Dark Sea	Squaddie
2005	Sacred Nation	Narrator
2005	Born to be Different	Narrator
2005	A Day in the Death of Joe Egg	Brian
2005	E=mc²	Narrator
2005	Dubai Dreams	Narrator
2005	Wanted: New Mum and Dad	Narrator
2005	Children in Need	Narrator
2005	This Sceptred Isle	Various characters
2006	The 1970s: That Was The Decade That Was	Narrator
2008	The Devil's Christmas	Narrator
2009	Wounded	Narrator
2011	The Bomb Squad	Narrator
2012	Timeshift: Wrestling's Golden Age: Grapplers, Grunts & Grannies	Narrator

Music videos

Year	Artist	Song
1998	I Am Kloot	"Northern Skies"
2003	I Am Kloot	"Proof"

Awards and nominations

Year	Work	Award	Category	Result
1997	Jude	Golden Satellite Award	Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama	Candidato/a
1997	Our Friends in the North	Broadcasting Press Guild Award	Best Actor	Vincitore/trice
1997	Our Friends in the North	BAFTA Television Award	Best Actor	Candidato/a
2003	Flesh and Blood	Royal Television Society Award	Best Actor	Vincitore/trice
2004	The Second Coming	BAFTA Television Award	Best Actor	Candidato/a
2005	Doctor Who	TV Choice Award	Best Actor	Vincitore/trice
2005	Doctor Who	National Television Awards	Most Popular Actor	Vincitore/trice
2005	Doctor Who	Broadcasting Press Guild Award	Best Actor	Candidato/a
2006	Doctor Who	BAFTA Cymru	Best Actor	Candidato/a
2007	Heroes	SyFy Genre Awards	Best Special Guest	Candidato/a (twice)
2011	Accused	International Emmy Award	Best Actor	Vincitore/trice

References

1. ^ Laura Kelly, Christopher Eccleston, The Big Issue, 21 June 2010. URL consultato il 22 novembre 2010.
2. ^ (EN) Alan, uno dei fratelli Eccleston, appears nella scena del party del film Heart ('Doctor in the house', Observer.Guardian.co.uk, 20 Marzo 2005.)
3. Fanshawe, Simon, Home truths: Christopher Eccleston, Guardian.co.uk, 15 gennaio 2000.
4. ^ At home with Christopher Eccleston, su salfordstar.blogspot.com, 11 August 2006. URL consultato il 12 dicembre 2008.
5. ^ Ailsa Cranna, Tsunami victims’ spirit of Salford, su salfordadvertiser.co.uk, 22 December 2005. URL consultato il 22 dicembre 2008.
6. ^ Jackson, Nick, "Little Hulton's reluctant film star", BlackburnCitizen.co.uk, 4 Ottobre 1996
7. ^ "Some of Our Famous Alumni…" CSSD.ac.uk
8. ^ Paddy Shennan, Christopher Eccleston says Jimmy McGovern’s Hillsborough is most important work he's ever done, su liverpoolecho.co.uk, Liverpool Echo, 30 novembre 2010. URL consultato il 20 luglio 2013.
9. ^ Dalton, Stephen, "A one-man awkward squad" Timesonline.co.uk, 3 February 2003
10. ^ BBC admits Dr Who actor blunder, in BBC News, BBC, 4 April 2005.
11. ^ Tom Leonard, Hamlet? Maybe not, but I'm not rubbish (XML), in The Daily Telegraph, Sun-Times Media Group, 4 October 2005.
12. ^ Nicola Methven, Polly Hudson, Chris'd off with alan, in The Daily Mirror, 14 October 2005.
13. ^ Christopher Eccleston talks about Doctor Who exit, in BBC News, BBC, 15 June 2010. URL consultato il 15 June 2010.
14. ^ Christopher Eccleston in conversation, su nationaltheatre.org.uk, National Theatre, July 2012. URL consultato il 5 aprile 2013.
15. ^ Matt Smith: 'Eccleston Could Return to Doctor Who', su femalefirst.co.uk, 3 August 2012. URL consultato il 10 October 2012.
16. ^ Morgan Jeffery, 'Doctor Who' 50th: BBC denies Christopher Eccleston 'quitting' rumors - Doctor Who News - Cult, su digitalspy.com.au, Digital Spy, 5 April 2013. URL consultato il 5 April 2013.
17. ^ Bourne, Dianne, Eccleston lends a hand ManchesterOnline.co.uk, 2 November 2005.
18. ^ Christopher's Tsunami journey, in BBC News, BBC, 14 December 2005.
19. ^ Liz Thomas, Eccleston swaps time for crime in first post-Doctor drama, in The Stage, The Stage Newspaper Limited, 7 April 2006.
20. ^ Michael Ausiello, November 2006 Ask Ausiello Controllare il valore del parametro url (aiuto), TV Guide Magazine, 15 November 2006.
21. ^ Eccleston suits up for 'G.I. Joe', in The Hollywood Reporter, 12 February 2008. ^{[collegamento interrotto]}
22. ^ Dr Who to play Lennon in new TV drama, su express.co.uk, Sunday 15 November 2009. URL consultato il 28 dicembre 2009.
23. ^ Press Office - Network TV Programme Information BBC Week 25 Wednesday 23 June 2010, su bbc.co.uk, BBC. URL consultato il 10 October 2012.
24. ^ BBC News - Antigone: Four star reviews for Christopher Eccleston, su bbc.co.uk, 1º June 2012. URL consultato il 10 October 2012.
25. ^ Mike Fleming, We Have A ‘Thor 2′ Villain: Christopher Eccleston To Play Malekith The Accursed, su deadline.com, 1º August 2012. URL consultato il 1º agosto 2012 (archiviato il 1º August 2012 Il valore del parametro dataarchivio non combacia con la data decodificata dall'URL: 2 agosto 2012 (aiuto)).
26. ^ Michael Odell, Christopher Eccleston tells Michael Odell what makes him angry and why he said no to Hollywood, in The Times, 24 December 2011.
27. ^ Christopher Eccleston in conversation, in National Theatre, 2012. URL consultato l'8 December 2012.
    
    «Question: Who had the most profound effect on your life, and what advice would you give to your son Albert? Christopher Eccleston: My mother and father, definitely, I had an incredibly happy childhood and loving and supportive parents, everything I’ve achieved in life is down to … getting a bit emotional here! - the start they gave me in life, without a doubt. My advice to Albert would be to try and get himself parents like I had. He’s done it, he’s got a mum like my mum.»
28. ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2010/10_october/26/accused2.shtml
29. ^ "I'm an atheist", Heaven and Earth Show, 4 April 2005
30. ^ My team: Christopher Eccleston on Manchester United Observer.Guardian.co.uk, 7 April 2002
31. ^ [1], www.bbc.co.uk, 24 March 2012.
32. ^ Pendleton College: Pendleton Theatres, PendColl.ac.uk.
33. ^ Celebrity Ambassadors: Christopher Eccleston, Mencap.org.uk
34. ^ Entertainment and Artists Supporters Network: Christopher Eccleston, RedCross.org.uk.

External links

Altri progetti

• Wikimedia Commons

• Wikimedia Commons contiene immagini o altri file su Drow/Sandbox
• (EN) The Guardian Unlimited Interview – Home Truths (15 January 2000)
• (EN) The Independent Interview – You've got to laugh (2 November 2002)
• (EN) BBC Drama Faces: Christopher Eccleston

Mycena inclinata

Template:Stack begin

Come leggere il tassobox {{{nome}}}
Classificazione scientifica

Template:Mycomorphbox Template:Stack end

Mycena inclinata, commonly known as the clustered bonnet or the oak-stump bonnet cap, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. The doubtfully edible mushroom has a reddish-brown bell-shaped cap up to 4,5 cm (1,8 in) in diameter. The thin stem is up to 9 cm (3,5 in) tall, whitish to yellow-brown at the top but progressively becoming reddish-brown towards the base in maturity, where they are covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The gills are pale brown to pinkish, and the spore print is white. It is a widespread saprobic fungus, and has been found in Europe, North Africa, Asia, Australasia, and North America, where it grows in small groups or tufts on fallen logs and stumps, especially of oak. British mycologist E.J.H. Corner has described two varieties of the mushroom from Borneo. Lookalike species with which M. inclinata may be confused include M. galericulata and M. maculata.

Taxonomy, phylogeny, and naming

First described as Agaricus inclinatus by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1838,^[1] it was assigned its current name in 1872 by Lucien Quélet.^[2] Mycena galericulata var. calopus (named by Karsten in 1879), and its basionym Agaricus galericulatus var. calopus (named by Fries in 1873), are synonyms.^[3]

In a molecular study of the large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences of mycorrhizal fungi of the orchid Gastrodia confusa, M. inclinata was found to be closely related to M. aurantiomarginata, M. crocata, and M. leaiana.^[4]

The specific epithet inclinata means "bent in".^[5] The mushroom is commonly known as the "clustered bonnet"^[6] or the "oak-stump bonnet cap".^[7]

Description

 

The stems gradually become deep brown near the base.

The cap is light reddish-brown, with a diameter typically ranging from 1 fino a 4,5 cm (0,4 fino a 1,8 in). Initially conic to bell-shaped to convex, it flattens during maturity, developing visible surface grooves corresponding to the gills underneath the cap.^[8] The margin of the cap has minute but distinct scallops.^[9] The surface is moist and smooth, and hygrophanous. The cap frequently develops splits in the margin, or cracks in the disc (the central part of the cap). The flesh of the cap is thick in the center but thin elsewhere, grayish to whitish, fragile, and with a slightly mealy odor and taste. The gills have a decurrent attachment to the stem (that is, running down the length of the stem) and are a pale brownish color with tinges of red. They are broad (between 3 and 6 mm), and have a close to subdistant spacing, with about 26–35 gills reaching the stem.^[10] The fragile stem is 3 fino a 9 cm (1,2 fino a 3,5 in) long by 0,15 fino a 0,4 cm (0,06 fino a 0,16 in) thick and yellow to yellow-brown, becoming reddish-brown to orange-brown in the bottom half in maturity. The lower portion of young stems is covered with white flecks. Roughly equal in thickness at the top and bottom, the base of the stem is covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem.^[11] The edibility of the mushroom is "doubtful" and consumption "best avoided".^[9]

Microscopic characteristics

The spores are 7–9 by 5–6.5 μm, broadly ellipsoid, smooth, and strongly amyloid (it turns black when treated with Melzer's reagent). The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored. The pleurocystidia (cystidia on the gill face) are not differentiated. The cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge) are embedded in the gill edge and very inconspicuous, club-shaped, 26–36 by 5–10 μm, and have tips that are covered with contorted projections that can be slender or thick. The flesh of the gills is homogeneous, and pale yellowish to dirty brown when stained in iodine. The flesh of the cap has a distinct pellicle, a well-differentiated hypoderm (a region of tissue immediately under the pellicle), and a filamentous tramal body (gill tissue); it is pale yellowish to sordid brownish in iodine stain.^[10]

Varieties

E.J.H. Corner defined the varieties M. inclinata var. kinabaluensis and var. subglobospora in his 1994 publication on Agaric mushrooms of Malesia, a biogeographical region straddling the boundary of the Indomalaya and Australasia ecozones. The variety kinabaluensis (named after its type locality, Kinabalu) has a cap margin that is not scalloped, little or no odor, and cheilocystidia with shorter processes. It was found growing on the dead wood of Lithocarpus havilandii, a stone oak tree in the beech family. Variety subglobospora, found in Sabah, has spores that are almost spherical.^[12]

Similar species

 

M. galericulata is a lookalike species.

Mycena maculata bears some resemblance to M. inclinata, but is only associated with decaying hardwood logs and stumps, and is found in eastern North America, and sometimes on oak on the West Coast. In age, it develops reddish spots on the gills that are not seen in M. inclinata.^[8] M. inclinata is often confused with the edible M. galericulata, a common species that is variable in cap color, size and shape. M. galericulata typically has a bluntly conical cap that is dull gray-brown, and white to grayish veins that have numerous cross-veins.^[9] M. polygramma has a ridged stem that is bluish-gray.^[7]

Habitat and distribution

Mycena inclinata is a saprobic fungus, deriving its nutrients from decomposing organic matter found in plant litter such as leaves, twigs, bark and branches. It accomplishes this by producing enzymes capable of breaking down the three major biochemical components of plant cell walls found in litter: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.^[13]

The fruit bodies of Mycena inclinata grow in dense groups or clusters on decaying hardwood logs and stumps (especially oak and chestnut) during the spring and autumn.^[10][7] The fungus forms a white, woolly mycelium on the surface of decomposing oak leaves.^[13] Occasionally, it can be found growing on a living tree.^[11] In eastern North America, it is abundant in the area bounded by Nova Scotia, Ontario, Manitoba, Missouri, North Carolina, and New York. It has been found in Oregon, but the species appears to be generally rare along the Pacific Coast.^[10] The range of the fungus also includes Europe, the Canary Islands, North Africa, East Siberia, Japan,^[11] Malesia,^[12] Turkey,^[14] and New Zealand.^[15]

Chemistry

In a study of the trace metal concentrations of various mushrooms species found in Ordu (Turkey), M. inclinata was found to have comparatively high levels of iron (628 mg per kg) and nickel (21.6 mg/kg), measured on a dry weight basis.^[16] Laboratory studies have shown that the fungus is resistant to aluminum.^[14] The fungus has been investigated for its ability to decolorize synthetic dyes that are used in the textile, plastics, biomedical and foodstuff industries. The dyes are not readily biodegradable, and when discharged into the environment are persistent and many are toxic.^[17]

See also

• List of bioluminescent fungi

References

1. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Fries1838
2. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Quelet1872
3. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore urlMycoBank: Mycena inclinata
4. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore OguraTsujita2009
5. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Rea1922
6. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore BMS
7. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Pegler 2000
8. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Miller2006
9. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Kibby1994
10. Smith, pp. 338–40.
11. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Treu1996
12. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Corner1994
13. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Steffen2007
14. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Hoiland2008
15. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Stevenson1964
16. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Mendil2005
17. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Baldrian2006

Cited text

• Smith AH., North American species of Mycena, Ann Arbor, Michigan, University of Michigan Press, 1947.

External links

• Template:IndexFungorum

Plasticità cerebrale

Biography

While there he became an avid comic-book fan, developing a strong interest in the innovative superheroes being published by Marvel Comics.^[1] Fantastic Four No. 20 (Nov 1963) printed a letter Martin wrote to the editor, the first of many sent, e.g., FF #32, #34, and others from his family's home at 35 E. First Street, Bayonne, NJ. Other fans wrote him letters, and through such contacts Martin joined the fledgling comics fandom of the era, writing fiction for various fanzines.^[2] In 1965 Martin won comic fandom's Alley Award for his prose superhero story "Powerman vs. The Blue Barrier," the first of many awards he would go on to win for his fiction.

In 1970 Martin earned a B. S. in Journalism from Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, graduating summa cum laude; he went on to complete his M. S. in Journalism in 1971, also from Northwestern. Eligible for the draft during the Vietnam War, to which he objected, Martin applied for and obtained conscientious-objector status;^[3] he instead did alternative service work for two years (1972–1974) as a VISTA volunteer, attached to the Cook County Legal Assistance Foundation. He also directed chess tournaments for the Continental Chess Association from 1973 to 1976. Then from 1976 to 1978 he was an English and journalism instructor at Clarke University (then Clarke College) in Dubuque, IA, becoming Writer In Residence at the college from 1978 to 1979.

Martin began selling science-fiction short stories professionally in 1970, at age 21. His first story, "The Hero", sold to Galaxy magazine and was published in its February 1971 issue; other sales soon followed. The first story of his nominated for the Hugo Award^[4] and the Nebula Award was With Morning Comes Mistfall, published in 1973 by Analog magazine. A member of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA), Martin became the organization's Southwest Regional Director from 1977 to 1979; from 1996 to 1998 he served as its vice-president.

In 1976, for Kansas City's MidAmeriCon, the 34th World Science Fiction Convention (Worldcon), Martin and his friend and fellow writer-editor Gardner Dozois conceived of and organized the first Hugo Losers Party for the benefit of all past and present Hugo-losing writers, their friends and families the evening following the convention's Hugo Awards ceremony. Martin was nominated for two Hugos that year but ultimately wound up losing both awards, for the novelette "...and Seven Times Never Kill Man" and the novella The Storms of Windhaven, co-written with Lisa Tuttle.^[5] The Hugo Losers Party became an annual Worldcon event thereafter, its formal title eventually evolving into something a little more politically correct as both its size and prestige grew.

Although Martin often writes fantasy or horror, a number of his earlier works tell science-fiction tales occurring in a loosely defined future history, known informally as "The Thousand Worlds" or "The Manrealm". He has also written at least one piece of political-military fiction, "Night of the Vampyres", collected in Harry Turtledove's anthology The Best Military Science Fiction of the 20th Century.^[6]

The unexpected commercial failure of Martin's fourth book, The Armageddon Rag (1983), "essentially destroyed my career as a novelist at the time", he recalled. It began his career in television, however,^[7] as a result of a Hollywood option on that novel that then led to him being hired, first as a staff writer and then as an Executive Story Consultant, for the revival of the Twilight Zone. When the CBS series ran its course, Martin and other Twilight Zone staff writers migrated over to the already underway satirical science fiction series Max Headroom. While there he wrote scripts and created the show's Ped Xing character, the president of the Zic Zak corporation, Network 23's primary sponsor. Before his completed scripts could go into production, the ABC show was canceled in the middle of its second season. Martin then became a producer on the dramatic fantasy series Beauty and the Beast; in 1989 he became the show's co-supervising producer. He also wrote 14 episodes.^[8] During this same period, he also worked in print media as a book-series editor, overseeing the development of the lengthy and still on-going Wild Cards series, which takes place in a shared universe in which a small slice of post–World War II humanity gains superpowers after the release of an alien-engineered virus. In Second Person Martin "gives a personal account of the close-knit role-playing game (RPG) culture that gave rise to his Wild Cards shared-world anthologies".^[9] Martin's own contributions to the multiple-author series often feature Thomas Tudbury, "The Great and Powerful Turtle", a powerful psychokinetic whose flying "shell" consisted of an armored VW Beetle. As of June 2011, 21 Wild Cards volumes had been published in the series; earlier that same year, Martin signed the contract for the 22nd volume, Low Ball, which has since been completed and will be published by Tor Books in mid-summer of 2014. In early 2012 Martin signed another Tor contract for the 23rd Wild Cards volume, High Stakes.

Martin's novella, Nightflyers, was adapted into a 1987 feature film of the same title; he was not happy about having to cut plot elements for the screenplay's scenario in order to accommodate the film's small budget.^[10]

 

Teaching at Clarion West, 1998.

Relationship with fans

 

GRRM signing books in a bookstore in Ljubljana, Slovenia (June 2011)

Martin is known for his regular attendance through the decades at science fiction conventions and comics conventions and his accessibility to fans. In the early 1980s, critic and writer Thomas Disch identified Martin as a member of the "Labor Day Group", writers who regularly congregated at the annual Worldcon,^[11] usually held on or around the Labor Day weekend. Since the early 1970s he has also attended regional science fiction conventions, and since 1986 Martin has participated annually in Albuquerque's smaller regional convention Bubonicon, near his New Mexico home.^[12]

Martin's official fan club is the "Brotherhood Without Banners," who have a regular posting board at the Forum of the large website, westeros.org, which is focused on his Song of Ice and Fire fantasy series. At the annual World Science Fiction Convention every year, the BWB hosts a large, on-going hospitality suite that is open to all members of the Worldcon;^[13] their suite frequently wins by popular vote the convention's best party award.^{[senza fonte]}

Martin has been criticized by some of his readers for the long periods between books in the Ice and Fire series, notably the six-year gap between the fourth volume, A Feast for Crows (2005), and the fifth volume, A Dance with Dragons (2011).^[14][15] In 2010 Martin responded to these criticisms by saying he was unwilling to write only his Ice and Fire series, noting that working on other prose and compiling and editing different book projects has always been part of his working process.^[16]

Martin is strongly opposed to fan fiction, believing it to be copyright infringement and a bad exercise for aspiring writers.^[17][18]

Personal life

In the early 1970s Martin was in a relationship with fellow science-fiction/fantasy author Lisa Tuttle,^[19] with whom he co-wrote Windhaven.

While attending an east coast science fiction convention he met his first wife Gale Burnick; they were married in 1975, but the marriage ended in divorce, without children, in 1979.

Since 1979 Martin has made Santa Fe, New Mexico his home; in 2013 he purchased the Jean Cocteau Cinema in Santa Fe, which had been closed since 2006, in order to restore and upgrade this landmark Santa Fe cinema to full operation as a general and special events theater. ^[20][21]

On February 15, 2011, Martin married his longtime paramour Parris McBride during a small ceremony at their Santa Fe, New Mexico, home; the couple exchanged Celtic-inspired wedding rings custom-made for them by local artisans. Area friends were in attendance and helped them celebrate the occasion.^[22] On August 19, 2011, they held a larger wedding ceremony and reception at Renovation, the 69th World Science Fiction Convention, in Reno, Nevada for their larger circle of friends within the fantasy and science fiction fields.^[23]

Martin maintains a LiveJournal account called "Not A Blog" where he posts about his works and various unrelated topics such as politics and the NFL: he is a lifelong supporter of the Democratic Party and claimed Jimmy Carter, during an interview with Authors@Google, to be "clearly the best human being to be president during my lifetime". He has recently expressed admiration for Barack Obama and strongly condemned attempts at voter suppression, likening it to the behavior of Democrats of the Solid South and citing the pro-voting rights Republicans of his youth as a far better rolemodel for the conservative movement, citing youthful admiration for specifically Everett Dirksen, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., Clifford Case, William Scranton and Barry Goldwater.^[24] Martin is an avid, lifelong fan of both the New York Jets and New York Giants. His LJ "Not a Blog" posts have been reposted at times by someone else to a George R. R. Martin Facebook page, but Martin has never been a member of that online community or a reader of its posts; he also does not use Twitter.

Martin spends his spare time reading voraciously on a variety of topics, collecting medieval-themed miniatures, watching professional football on television (in season), reading and collecting science fiction, fantasy, and horror books, and treasuring his large comics collection, which includes the first issues of Marvel's "silver age" Spider-Man and Fantastic Four.

He and his wife Parris are supporters of the Wild Spirit Wolf Sanctuary in New Mexico.^[25] Martin has noted his admiration for wolves not only in his books but also through fundraising.^[26][27]

In response to a question regarding his religious views, Martin replied, "I suppose I’m a lapsed Catholic. You would consider me an atheist or agnostic. I find religion and spirituality fascinating. I would like to believe this isn’t the end and there’s something more, but I can’t convince the rational part of me that makes any sense whatsoever. That’s what Tolkien left out — there’s no priesthood, there’s no temples; nobody is worshiping anything in the Rings." ^[28]

Human intelligence

Psychometrics

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Intelligence quotient e Psychometrics.

 

The IQs of a large enough population are calculated so that they conform^[29] to a normal distribution.

The approach to understanding intelligence with the most supporters and published research over the longest period of time is based on psychometric testing. It is also by far the most widely used in practical settings. Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests include the Stanford-Binet, Raven's Progressive Matrices, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children. There are also psychometric tests that are not intended to measure intelligence itself but some closely related construct such as scholastic aptitude. In the United States examples include the SSAT, the SAT, the ACT, the GRE, the MCAT, the LSAT, and the GMAT.^[30]

Intelligence tests are widely used in educational,^[31] business, and military settings because of their efficacy in predicting behavior. IQ and g (discussed in the next section) are correlated with many important social outcomes—individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced, have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long-term welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income.^[32] Intelligence is significantly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes, and IQ/g is the single best predictor of successful job performance.^[30][33]

General intelligence factor or g

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: G factor (psychometrics).

There are many different kinds of IQ tests using a wide variety of test tasks. Some tests consist of a single type of task, others rely on a broad collection of tasks with different contents (visual-spatial,^[34] verbal, numerical) and asking for different cognitive processes (e.g., reasoning, memory, rapid decisions, visual comparisons, spatial imagery, reading, and retrieval of general knowledge). The psychologist Charles Spearman early in the 20th century carried out the first formal factor analysis of correlations between various test tasks. He found a trend for all such tests to correlate positively with each other, which is called a positive manifold. Spearman found that a single common factor explained the positive correlations among tests. Spearman named it g for "general intelligence factor". He interpreted it as the core of human intelligence that, to a larger or smaller degree, influences success in all cognitive tasks and thereby creates the positive manifold. This interpretation of g as a common cause of test performance is still dominant in psychometrics. An alternative interpretation was recently advanced by van der Maas and colleagues.^[35] Their mutualism model assumes that intelligence depends on several independent mechanisms, none of which influences performance on all cognitive tests. These mechanisms support each other so that efficient operation of one of them makes efficient operation of the others more likely, thereby creating the positive manifold.

IQ tasks and tests can be ranked by how highly they load on the g factor. Tests with high g-loadings are those that correlate highly with most other tests. One comprehensive study investigating the correlations between a large collection of tests and tasks^[36] has found that the Raven's Progressive Matrices have a particularly high correlation with most other tests and tasks. The Raven's is a test of inductive reasoning with abstract visual material. It consists of a series of problems, sorted approximately by increasing difficulty. Each problem presents a 3 x 3 matrix of abstract designs with one empty cell; the matrix is constructed according to a rule, and the person must find out the rule to determine which of 8 alternatives fits into the empty cell. Because of its high correlation with other tests, the Raven's Progressive Matrices are generally acknowledged as a good indicator of general intelligence. This is problematic, however, because there are substantial gender differences on the Raven's,^[37] which are not found when g is measured directly by computing the general factor from a broad collection of tests.^[38]

Historical psychometric theories

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Intelligence quotient § History.

Several different theories of intelligence have historically been important. Often they emphasized more factors than a single one like in g factor.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory.

Many of the broad, recent IQ tests have been greatly influenced by the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory. It is argued to reflect much of what is known about intelligence from research. A hierarchy of factors is used. g is at the top. Under it there are 10 broad abilities that in turn are subdivided into 70 narrow abilities. The broad abilities are:^[39]

• Fluid Intelligence (Gf): includes the broad ability to reason, form concepts, and solve problems using unfamiliar information or novel procedures.
• Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): includes the breadth and depth of a person's acquired knowledge, the ability to communicate one's knowledge, and the ability to reason using previously learned experiences or procedures.
• Quantitative Reasoning (Gq): the ability to comprehend quantitative concepts and relationships and to manipulate numerical symbols.
• Reading & Writing Ability (Grw): includes basic reading and writing skills.
• Short-Term Memory (Gsm): is the ability to apprehend and hold information in immediate awareness and then use it within a few seconds.
• Long-Term Storage and Retrieval (Glr): is the ability to store information and fluently retrieve it later in the process of thinking.
• Visual Processing (Gv): is the ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, and think with visual patterns, including the ability to store and recall visual representations.
• Auditory Processing (Ga): is the ability to analyze, synthesize, and discriminate auditory stimuli, including the ability to process and discriminate speech sounds that may be presented under distorted conditions.
• Processing Speed (Gs): is the ability to perform automatic cognitive tasks, particularly when measured under pressure to maintain focused attention.
• Decision/Reaction Time/Speed (Gt): reflect the immediacy with which an individual can react to stimuli or a task (typically measured in seconds or fractions of seconds; not to be confused with Gs, which typically is measured in intervals of 2–3 minutes). See Mental chronometry.

Modern tests do not necessarily measure of all of these broad abilities. For example, Gq and Grw may be seen as measures of school achievement and not IQ.^[39] Gt may be difficult to measure without special equipment.

g was earlier often subdivided into only Gf and Gc which were thought to correspond to the Nonverbal or Performance subtests and Verbal subtests in earlier versions of the popular Wechsler IQ test. More recent research has shown the situation to be more complex.^[39]

Controversies

While not necessarily a dispute about the psychometric approach itself, there are several controversies regarding the results from psychometric research. Examples are the role of genetics vs. environment, the causes of average group differences, or the Flynn effect.

One criticism has been against the early research such as craniometry.^[40] A reply has been that drawing conclusions from early intelligence research is like condemning the auto industry by criticizing the performance of the Model T.^[41]

Several critics, such as Stephen Jay Gould, have been critical of g, seeing it as a statistical artifact, and that IQ tests instead measure a number of unrelated abilities.^[40][42] The American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" stated that IQ tests do correlate and that the view that g is a statistical artifact is a minority one.

Other theories

There are critics of IQ, who do not dispute the stability of IQ test scores or the fact that they predict certain forms of achievement rather effectively. They do argue, however, that to base a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental ability.^[30]

On the other hand, Linda S. Gottfredson (2006) has argued that the results of thousands of studies support the importance of IQ for school and job performance (see also the work of Schmidt & Hunter, 2004). IQ also predicts or correlates with numerous other life outcomes. In contrast, empirical support for non-g intelligences is lacking or very poor. She argued that despite this the ideas of multiple non-g intelligences are very attractive to many because they suggest that everyone can be smart in some way.^[43]

Multiple intelligences

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Theory of multiple intelligences.

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences is based on studies not only of normal children and adults but also by studies of gifted individuals (including so-called "savants"), of persons who have suffered brain damage, of experts and virtuosos, and of individuals from diverse cultures. This led Gardner to break intelligence down into at least a number of different components. In the first edition of his book "Frames of Mind" (1983), he described seven distinct types of intelligence - logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. In a second edition of this book, he added two more types of intelligence - naturalist and existential intelligences. He argues that psychometric tests address only linguistic and logical plus some aspects of spatial intelligence.^[30] A major criticism of Gardner's theory is that it has never been tested, or subjected to peer review, by Gardner or anyone else, and indeed that it is unfalsifiable.^[44] Others (e.g. Locke, 2005) have suggested that recognizing many specific forms of intelligence (specific aptitude theory) implies a political—rather than scientific—agenda, intended to appreciate the uniqueness in all individuals, rather than recognizing potentially true and meaningful differences in individual capacities. Schmidt and Hunter (2004) suggest that the predictive validity of specific aptitudes over and above that of general mental ability, or "g", has not received empirical support.

Howard Gardner mentions in his Multiple Intelligences The Theory in Practice^[45] book, briefly about his main seven intelligences he introduced. In his book, he starts off describing Linguistic and Logical Intelligence because he believed that in society, we have put these two intelligences on a pedestal. However, Gardner believes all of the intelligences he found are equal. Note: At the time of the publication of Gardner's book Multiple Intelligences The Theory in Practice, naturalist and existential intelligences were not mentioned.

Linguistic Intelligence: People high in linguistic Intelligence have an affinity for words, both spoken and written.

Logical-Mathematics Intelligence: Is logical and mathematical ability, as well as scientific ability. Howard Gardner believed Jean Piaget may have thought he was studying all intelligence, but in truth, Piaget was really only focusing on the logical mathematical intelligence.

Spatial intelligence: The ability to form a mental model of a spatial world and to be able to maneuver and operate using that model.

Musical Intelligence: Those with musical Intelligence have excellent pitch, and may even be absolute pitch.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to solve problems or to fashion products using one's whole body, or parts of the body. For example, dancers, athletes, surgeons, craftspeople, etc.

Interpersonal intelligence: The ability to see things from the perspective of others, or to understand people in the sense of empathy. Strong interpersonal intelligence would be an asset in those who are teachers, politicians, clinicians, religious leaders, etc.

Intrapersonal intelligence: A correlative ability, turned inward. It is a capacity to form an accurate, veridical model of oneself and to be able to use that model to operate effectively in life.

Triarchic theory of intelligence

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Triarchic theory of intelligence.

Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence to provide a more comprehensive description of intellectual competence than traditional differential or cognitive theories of human ability.^[46] The triarchic theory describes three fundamental aspects of intelligence. Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed. Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge that is nearly, but not entirely, novel or when an individual is engaged in automatizing the performance of a task. Practical intelligence is bound in a sociocultural milieu and involves adaptation to, selection of, and shaping of the environment to maximize fit in the context. The triarchic theory does not argue against the validity of a general intelligence factor; instead, the theory posits that general intelligence is part of analytic intelligence, and only by considering all three aspects of intelligence can the full range of intellectual functioning be fully understood.

More recently, the triarchic theory has been updated and renamed the Theory of Successful Intelligence by Sternberg.^[47][48] Intelligence is defined as an individual's assessment of success in life by the individual's own (idiographic) standards and within the individual's sociocultural context. Success is achieved by using combinations of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. The three aspects of intelligence are referred to as processing skills. The processing skills are applied to the pursuit of success through what were the three elements of practical intelligence: adapting to, shaping of, and selecting of one's environments. The mechanisms that employ the processing skills to achieve success include utilizing one's strengths and compensating or correcting for one's weaknesses.

Sternberg's theories and research on intelligence remain contentious within the scientific community.^{[49][50][51][52]}

PASS Theory of Intelligence

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: PASS Theory of Intelligence.

Based on A. R. Luria’s (1966)^[53] seminal work on the modularization of brain function, and supported by decades of neuroimaging research, the PASS Theory of Intelligence^[54] proposes that cognition is organized in three systems and four processes. The first is the Planning, which involves executive functions responsible for controlling and organizing behavior, selecting and constructing strategies, and monitoring performance. The second is the Attention process, which is responsible for maintaining arousal levels and alertness, and ensuring focus on relevant stimuli. The next two are called Simultaneous and Successive processing and they involve encoding, transforming, and retaining information. Simultaneous processing is engaged when the relationship between items and their integration into whole units of information is required. Examples of this include recognizing figures, such as a triangle within a circle vs. a circle within a triangle, or the difference between ‘he had a shower before breakfast’ and ‘he had breakfast before a shower.’ Successive processing is required for organizing separate items in a sequence such as remembering a sequence of words or actions exactly in the order in which they had just been presented. These four processes are functions of four areas of the brain. Planning is broadly located in the front part of our brains, the frontal lobe. Attention and arousal are combined functions of the frontal lobe and the lower parts of the cortex, although the parietal lobes are also involved in attention as well. Simultaneous processing and Successive processing occur in the posterior region or the back of the brain. Simultaneous processing is broadly associated with the occipital and the parietal lobes while Successive processing is broadly associated with the frontal-temporal lobes. The PASS (Planning/Attention/Simultaneous/Successive) theory is heavily indebted to both Luria (1966,^[53] 1973^[55]), and studies in cognitive psychology involved in promoting a better look at intelligence.^[56]

Piaget's theory and Neo-Piagetian theories

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Piaget's theory of cognitive development e Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development.

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development the focus is not on mental abilities but rather on a child's mental models of the world. As a child develops, increasingly more accurate models of the world are developed which enable the child to interact with the world better. One example being object permanence where the child develops a model where objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.

Piaget's theory described four main stages and many sub-stages in the development. These four main stages are:

• sensory motor stage (birth-2yrs);
• pre-operational stage (2yrs-7rs);
• concrete operational stage (7rs-11yrs); and
• formal operations stage (11yrs-16yrs)^[57]

Degree of progress through these stages are correlated, but not identical with psychometric IQ.^[58][59] Piaget conceptualizes intelligence as an activity more than a capacity.

One of Piaget's most famous studies focused purely on the discriminative abilities of children between the ages of two and a half years old, and four and a half years old. He began the study by taking children of different ages and placing two lines of sweets, one with the sweets in a line spread further apart, and one with the same number of sweets in a line placed more closely together. He found that, "Children between 2 years, 6 months old and 3 years, 2 months old correctly discriminate the relative number of objects in two rows; between 3 years, 2 months and 4 years, 6 months they indicate a longer row with fewer objects to have "more"; after 4 years, 6 months they again discriminate correctly".^[60] Initially younger children were not studied, because if at four years old a child could not conserve quantity, then a younger child presumably could not either. The results show however that children that are younger than three years and two months have quantity conservation, but as they get older they lose this quality, and do not recover it until four and a half years old. This attribute may be lost temporarily because of an overdependence on perceptual strategies, which correlates more candy with a longer line of candy, or because of the inability for a four-year-old to reverse situations.^[57] By the end of this experiment several results were found. First, younger children have a discriminative ability that shows the logical capacity for cognitive operations exists earlier than acknowledged. This study also reveals that young children can be equipped with certain qualities for cognitive operations, depending on how logical the structure of the task is. Research also shows that children develop explicit understanding at age 5 and as a result, the child will count the sweets to decide which has more. Finally the study found that overall quantity conservation is not a basic characteristic of humans' native inheritance.^[57]

Piaget's theory has been criticized for the age of appearance of a new model of the world, such as object permanence, being dependent on how the testing is done (see the article on object permanence). More generally, the theory may be very difficult to test empirically because of the difficulty of proving or disproving that a mental model is the explanation for the results of the testing.^[61]

Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development expand Piaget's theory in various ways such as also considering psychometric-like factors such as processing speed and working memory, "hypercognitive" factors like self-monitoring, more stages, and more consideration on how progress may vary in different domains such as spatial or social.^[62][63]

Latent inhibition

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Latent inhibition.

Latent inhibition has been related to elements of intelligence, namely creativity and genius.

Evolution of intelligence

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Evolution of human intelligence.

The ancestors of modern humans evolved large and complex brains exhibiting an ever-increasing intelligence through a long evolutionary process (see Homininae). Different explanations have been proposed.

Improving intelligence

Eugenics is a social philosophy which advocates the improvement of human hereditary traits through various forms of intervention.^[64] Conscious efforts to influence intelligence raise ethical issues. Eugenics has variously been regarded as meritorious or deplorable in different periods of history, falling greatly into disrepute after the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II.^{[senza fonte]}

Neuroethics considers the ethical, legal and social implications of neuroscience, and deals with issues such as the difference between treating a human neurological disease and enhancing the human brain, and how wealth impacts access to neurotechnology. Neuroethical issues interact with the ethics of human genetic engineering.

Because intelligence appears to be at least partly dependent on brain structure and the genes shaping brain development, it has been proposed that genetic engineering could be used to enhance the intelligence, a process sometimes called biological uplift in science fiction. Experiments on mice have demonstrated superior ability in learning and memory in various behavioral tasks.^[65]

IQ leads to greater success in education,^[66] but independently education raises IQ scores.^[67] Attempts to raise IQ with brain training have led to increases on the training tasks – for instance working memory – but it is as yet unclear if these generalise to increased intelligence per se.^[68]

Transhumanist theorists study the possibilities and consequences of developing and using techniques to enhance human abilities and aptitudes, and individuals ameliorating what they regard as undesirable and unnecessary aspects of the human condition.

Substances which actually or purportedly improve intelligence or other mental functions are called nootropics.

A 2008 research paper claimed that practicing a dual n-back task can increase fluid intelligence (Gf), as measured in several different standard tests.^[69] This finding received some attention from popular media, including an article in Wired.^[70] However, a subsequent criticism of the paper's methodology questioned the experiment's validity and took issue with the lack of uniformity in the tests used to evaluate the control and test groups.^[71] For example, the progressive nature of Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) test may have been compromised by modifications of time restrictions (i.e., 10 minutes were allowed to complete a normally 45-minute test).

Correlates

According to Rosemary Hopcroft, a sociologist at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, intelligence is inversely linked with sexual frequency (people with higher levels of education often report lower numbers of sexual partners).^[72] In parallel, self-reported intelligence has been linked to unconventional sexual practices and frequent sexual activity, thoughts and fantasies.^[73]

Some studies have shown a direct link between an increased birth weight and an increased intelligence quotient.^[74][75][76]

Comparazioni con la neurobiologia

Il sistema sensoriale e di risposta di una pianta è stato comparato con i processi neurobiologici degli Animali. La neurobiologia delle piante riguarda soprattutto il comportamento adattativo sensoriale dell'elettrofisiologia di piante e vegetali. Lo scienziato indiano J. C. Bose è accreditato come la prima persona ad aver parlato di neurobiologia delle piante. Molti scienziati dei vegetali e neuroscienziati, tuttavia, ritengono che questo termine sia inesatto, in quanto le piante non hanno neuroni.^[77]

Le idee dietro la neurobiologia vegetale sono state criticate in un articolo del 2007^[77] pubblicato in Trends in Plant Science da Amedeo Alpi e 35 altri scienziati, comprendenti eminenti biologi delle piante come Gerd Jürgens, Ben Scheres, e Chris Sommerville. L'ampiezza dei campi della scienza delle piante rappresentata da questi ricercatori riflette il fatto che la stragrande maggioranza della comunità scientifica di ricerca sulle piante rifiuta la neurobiologia vegetale. I loro argomenti principali sono^[77]:

• "La neurobiologia vegetale non aggiunge nulla alla nostra comprensione della fisiologia vegetale, della biologia cellulare vegetale o della segnalazione".
• "Nelle piante non c'è evidenza di strutture assimilabili a neuroni, sinapsi o cervelli".
• Il verificarsi comune di plasmodesmata nelle piante, che "pone un problema per la segnalazione da un punto di vista elettrofisiologico" dato l'ampio accoppiamento elettrico precluderebbe la necessità di qualsiasi trasporto cellula-cellula di composti simili a neurotrasmettitori.

Se il concetto di "neurobiologia delle piante" è a beneficio della comunità di ricerca gli autori chiedono la fine di "analogie superficiali e estrapolazioni discutibili".^[77]

Ci sono state diverse risposte alla critica per chiarire che il termine "neurobiologia vegetale" è una metafora e che le metafore si sono rivelate utili in diverse occasioni.^[78][79]

Attualmente non vi sono definizioni accademiche, ovvero prodotte dalla comunità dei ricercatori, di intelligenza che godano dell'accordo universale della comunità scientifica stessa. Tra i molti enunciati proposti si segnala quello riportato in una dichiarazione editoriale del 1994 firmata da cinquantadue ricercatori, Mainstream Science on Intelligence:

L'intelligenza è l'insieme di tutte le funzioni psichiche/mentali che permettono ad un soggetto (individuo o animale) di capire cose ed eventi, scoprendo le relazioni che intercorrono tra di essi ed arrivando ad una conoscenza concettuale e razionale (ovvero non percettiva o intuitiva). Essa si percepisce nella capacità di comprendere, adattarsi e fronteggiare con successo nuove situazioni e può dunque essere concepita come una capacità di adattamento all'ambiente.

In particolare, l'intelligenza permette di rilevare o cogliere relazioni problematiche, contrasti e di risolvere autonomamente i problemi nuovi (effettivi, potenziali); comporta inoltre la capacità di prevedere e scongiurare il verificarsi di situazioni future negative, o di evitarlo (non necessariamente in maniera conscia), per merito delle proprie elaborazioni di informazioni, ricordi e/o dati percettivi, invece che unicamente per merito di un richiamo/riapplicazione automatico/a di informazioni o comportamenti pregressi.

L'Uomo è dotato di intelligenza concettuale: la comprensione per Homo Sapiens passa attraverso l'uso dei concetti, ovvero di parole a cui associare dei significati. La capacità di linguaggio è dunque un aspetto fondamentale dell'intelligenza umana, che permette tra l'altro il ragionamento complesso e astratto.^[80]

Comportamenti assimilabili a quelli indotti dall'intelligenza animale sono riscontrabili anche nelle piante, mentre i settori di ricerca legati al campo dell'intelligenza artificiale tentano di creare delle macchine in grado di riprodurre tali comportamenti.

La varietà dei comportamenti umani e animali cosiddetti "intelligenti" è estremamente ampia; ciò rende problematico il raggiungimento di una definizione accademica di intelligenza che risulti sintetica, onnicomprensiva e al contempo universalmente condivisa. Si riscontra pertanto all'interno della comunità scientifica degli psicologi una diversità di definizioni, ciascuna delle quali risente dell'orientamento di pensiero di chi l'ha formulata.

La varietà dei comportamenti umani e animali "intelligenti" è estremamente ampia; ciò, rende problematico il raggiungimento di una definizione accademica di intelligenza che risulti al contempo sintetica, onnicomprensiva e universalmente condivisa. Si riscontrano pertanto all'interno della comunità scientifica degli psicologi definizioni diverse, ciascuna delle quali risentente dell'orientamento di pensiero di chi l'ha formulata.

La varietà dei comportamenti umani e animali "intelligenti" è estremamente ampia; ciò, rende problematico il raggiungimento di una definizione accademica di intelligenza che possa essere sintetica, onnicomprensiva e al contempo universalmente condivisa. All'interno della comunità scientifica degli psicologi vi è pertanto una pluralità di definizioni.

La definizione di intelligenza è in realtà controversa: la varietà delle manifestazioni comportamentali umane e animali ad essa associabili è difatti estremamente ampia, rendendo problematico il raggiungimento di una definizione di intelligenza che risulti sintetica, completa, universalmente condivisa dalla comunità scientifica in primo luogo.

Le definizioni date sono pertanto plurime, dipendenti dall'orientamento di pensiero di chi le ha formulate. Tra le più importanti si segnala quella fornita in una dichiarazione editoriale del 1994, Mainstream Science on Intelligence, firmato da cinquantadue ricercatori:

Una definizione di intelligenza dotata delle qualità di sintesi, completezza e condivisione universale da parte della comunità scientifica è in verità ancora lontana dall'essere raggiungibile: la varietà delle manifestazioni comportamentali umane e animali associabili all'intelligenza è infatti estremamente ampia, dando adito, piuttosto, ad una pluralità di definizioni anche in seno accademico.

Tra i molti enunciati forniti, si segnala per importanza quello pubblicato su Mainstream Science on Intelligence, una dichiarazione editoriale del 1994 firmata da cinquantadue ricercatori:

Con il termine intelligenza si fa riferimento all'insieme di tutte le funzioni psichiche/mentali che permettono ad un soggetto (individuo o animale) di capire cose ed eventi, scoprendo le relazioni che intercorrono tra di essi ed arrivando ad una conoscenza concettuale e razionale (ovvero non percettiva o intuitiva). Essa si percepisce nella capacità di comprendere, adattarsi e fronteggiare con successo nuove situazioni e può dunque essere concepita come una capacità di adattamento all'ambiente. L'intelligenza permette in particolare di rilevare o cogliere relazioni problematiche e contrasti, di identificare i problemi nuovi, di risolverli autonomamente, e di risolverli nel modo più appropriato alle situazioni in cui sono immersi. Comporta inoltre la capacità del soggetto di prevedere e scongiurare, o di evitare (non necessariamente in maniera conscia), il verificarsi di situazioni future negative per merito delle proprie elaborazioni di informazioni, ricordi e/o dati percettivi (ovvero, non unicamente per merito di un/una richiamo/riapplicazione automatico/a di informazioni o comportamenti pregressi).

Comportamenti assimilabili a quelli indotti dall'intelligenza animale sono riscontrabili anche nelle piante, mentre i settori di ricerca legati al campo dell'intelligenza artificiale tentano di creare delle macchine in grado di produrre anch'esse comportamenti intelligenti.

== Etimologia ==
La parola intelligenza deriva dal sostantivo latino intelligenzĭa, a sua volta derivante dal verbo intelligĕre, "capire". La genesi di intelligĕre è incerta: secondo alcuni, sarebbe una contrazione del verbo legĕre (= "scegliere", "leggere") con l'avverbio intus (= "dentro"), mentre secondo altri lo sarebbe con l'avverbio inter (= "tra"). Nel primo caso, il termine latino significherebbe "leggere-dentro", suggerendo una capacità di "leggere oltre la superficie", di comprendere davvero, comprendere le reali intenzioni. Nel secondo, intelligĕre starebbe per "leggere-tra", suggerendo forse una capacità di "leggere tra le righe", di stabilire delle correlazioni tra elementi.

== Definizioni accademiche ==
La comunità scientifica non ha ad oggi raggiunto un accordo universale su una definizione universitaria unica e condivisa di intelligenza. Tra le molte definizioni proposte dai ricercatori si segnala quella riportata su Mainstream Science on Intelligence, una dichiarazione editoriale del 1994 firmata da cinquantadue di essi:

(inglese)

«A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.^[81]»

(italiano)
«[Dicesi intelligenza] Una generale funzione mentale che, tra l'altro, comporta la capacità di ragionare, pianificare, risolvere problemi, pensare in maniera astratta, comprendere idee complesse, apprendere rapidamente e apprendere dall'esperienza. Non riguarda solo l'apprendimento dai libri, un'abilità accademica limitata, o l'astuzia nei test. Piuttosto, riflette una capacità più ampia e profonda di capire ciò che ci circonda – "afferrare" le cose, attribuirgli un significato, o "scoprire" il da farsi.»

(Da Mainstream Science on Intelligence, 1994)

Altre definizioni date sono: "la capacità o disposizione ad utilizzare in modo adeguato allo scopo tutti gli elementi del pensiero necessari per riconoscere, impostare e risolvere nuovi problemi" (William L. Stern)^[82]; "la capacità generale di adattare il proprio pensiero e condotta di fronte a condizioni e situazioni nuove" (Daniel N. Stern)^[83]; "... l'anticipazione utile [...] si misura a posteriori dal grado di soddisfazione raggiunto dal soggetto".

  Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Intelligenza (disambigua).

L'intelligenza è l'insieme di tutte le funzioni psichiche/mentali che permettono ad un soggetto (individuo o animale) di capire cose ed eventi, scoprendo le relazioni che intercorrono tra di essi ed arrivando ad una conoscenza concettuale e razionale (ovvero non percettiva o intuitiva). Essa si percepisce nella capacità di comprendere, adattarsi e fronteggiare con successo nuove situazioni e può dunque essere concepita come una capacità di adattamento all'ambiente. In particolare, l'intelligenza permette di rilevare o cogliere relazioni problematiche e contrasti, di identificare i problemi nuovi, di risolverli autonomamente e di risolverli nel modo più appropriato alle situazioni in cui sono immersi; da essa consegue inoltre la capacità di un soggetto di prevedere e scongiurare, o evitare (non necessariamente in maniera conscia), il verificarsi di situazioni future negative, per merito delle proprie elaborazioni di informazioni, ricordi e/o dati percettivi (ovvero, non unicamente per merito di un/una richiamo/riapplicazione automatico/a di informazioni o comportamenti pregressi).

Le piante presentano comportamenti che sono assimilabili a quelli indotti dall'intelligenza animale; i settori di ricerca legati al campo dell'intelligenza artificiale tentano di creare delle macchine in grado di produrre anch'esse comportamenti intelligenti.

1. ^ Rutkoff, Aaron. "Garden State Tolkien: Q&A With George R.R. Martin", The Wall Street Journal, July 8, 2011. Retrieved July 11, 2011. "Mr. Martin, 62 years old, says that he grew up in a federal housing project in Bayonne, which is situated on a peninsula.... My four years at Marist High School were not the happiest of my life,” the author admits, although his growing enthusiasm for writing comics and superhero stories first emerged during this period."
2. ^   Dent, Grace (interviewer); Martin, George R. R., Game Of Thrones – Interview with George R.R. Martin, YouTube, , 12 giugno 2012.
3. ^ George Stroumboulopoulos Tonight, interview with Martin, CBC.ca, March 14, 2012. URL consultato il March 15, 2012.,
4. ^ With Morning Comes Mistfall, su thehugoawards.org, Hugo Awards. URL consultato il May 22, 2012.
5. ^ The Locus Index to SF Awards. Retrieved Aug 14, 2012
6. ^ Turtledove, Harry, ed., with Martin H. Greenberg. The Best Military Science Fiction of the 20th Century. New York: Ballantine, May 2001, p. 279–306.
7. ^ Berwick, Isabel, Lunch with the FT: George RR Martin, in Financial Times, 1º giugno 2012. URL consultato il June 1, 2012.
8. ^ {{{title}}}, su imdb.com.
9. ^ Kerr, John Finlay. 2009. Second person: Role-playing and story in games and playable media, edited by Pat Harrigan and Noah Wardrip-Fruin [book review]. Transformative Works and Cultures, no. 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.3983/twc.2009.0095.
10. ^ Peter Sagal, 'Thrones' Author George R.R. Martin Plays Not My Job, su npr.org, NPR, September 15, 2012. URL consultato il September 16, 2012.
11. ^ http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472068968-17.pdf
12. ^ http://georgerrmartin.com/appearances.html
13. ^ http://www.goodreads.com/author/show/346732.George_R_R_Martin/blog
14. ^ Laura Miller, Onward and Upward with the Arts: Just Write It!: A fantasy author and his impatient fans., in The New Yorker, April 11, 2011. URL consultato il 12 febbraio 2012.
15. ^ Guy Gavriel Kay, Restless readers go bonkers, in Globe and Mail, April 10, 2009. URL consultato il 13 maggio 2010.
16. ^ Alison Flood, Excitement as George RR Martin announces he's 1,200 pages into new book, in The Guardian, February 16, 2010. URL consultato il 13 maggio 2010.
17. ^ George R R Martin, Frequently Asked Questions - George R. R. Martin's Official Website, su georgerrmartin.com. URL consultato il January 16, 2013.
18. ^ George R R Martin, Not A Blog - Someone Is Angry On the Internet, su grrm.livejournal.com, LiveJournal, May 7, 2010. URL consultato il January 16, 2013.
19. ^ In Love With Lisa, in Life & Times, George R.R. Martin Official Website. URL consultato l'8 luglio 2012.
20. ^ and special events ://grrm.livejournal.com/321014.html
21. ^ http://www.santafenewmexican.com/news/local_news/article_11f41778-724e-5d42-9fbe-40e5b56ae400.html
22. ^ Big, Big, BIG News, in Not A Blog, LiveJournal, 17. URL consultato il July 8, 2012.
23. ^ http://www.paulcornell.com/2011/09/worldcon-love-story.html
24. ^ http://grrm.livejournal.com/287215.html
25. ^ http://grrm.livejournal.com/tag/wolves
26. ^ http://grrm.livejournal.com/282994.html
27. ^ http://grrm.livejournal.com/284608.html
28. ^ http://shelf-life.ew.com/2011/07/12/george-martin-talks-a-dance-with-dragons/
29. ^ S.E. Embretson & S.P.Reise: Item response theory for psychologists, 2000. "...for many other psychological tests, normal distributions are achieved by normalizing procedures. For example, intelligence tests..." Found on: books.google.se
30. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore APA1995
31. ^ Ritter, N., Kilinc, E., Navruz, B., Bae, Y. (2011). Test Review: Test of Nonverbal Intelligence-4 (TONI-4). Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 29(5), 384-388. doi: 10.1177/0734282911400400
32. ^ Geary, David M., The Origin of the Mind: Evolution of Brain, Cognition, and General Intelligence, American Psychological Association (APA), 2004, ISBN 1-59147-181-8.
33. ^ Ree, M.J., Intelligence Is the Best Predictor of Job Performance, in Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 1, n. 3, 1992, pp. 86–89, DOI:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10768746.
34. ^ Delen, E., Kaya, F., and Ritter, N. (2012). Test review: Test of Comprehensive Nonverbal Intelligence-2 (CTONI-2). Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 30(2) 209-213. doi: 10.1177/0734282911415614
35. ^ H. L. J. van der Maas, Dolan, C. V.; Grasman, R. P. P. P.; Wicherts, J. M.; Huizenga, H. M.; Raijmakers, M. E. J., A dynamical model of general intelligence: The positive manifold of intelligence by mutualism, in Psychological Review, vol. 113, n. 4, 2006, pp. 842–861, DOI:10.1037/0033-295X.113.4.842.
36. ^ B. Marshalek, Lohman, D. F. Snow, R. E., The complexity continuum in the radex and hierarchical models of intelligence, in Intelligence, vol. 7, n. 2, 1983, pp. 107–127, DOI:10.1016/0160-2896(83)90023-5.
37. ^ R. Lynnn, Irving, P., Sex differences on the progressive matrices: A meta-analysis, in Intelligence, vol. 32, n. 5, 2004, pp. 481–498, DOI:10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.008.
38. ^ D. F. Halpern, LaMay, M. L., The smarter sex: A critical review of sex differences in intelligence, in Educational Psychology Review, vol. 12, n. 2, 2000, pp. 229–246, DOI:10.1023/A:1009027516424.
39. IQ Testing 101, Alan S. Kaufman, 2009, Springer Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-8261-0629-2
40. The Mismeasure of Man, Stephen Jay Gould, Norton, 1996
41. ^ Jensen, A.R., The debunking of scientific fossils and straw persons, in Contemporary Education Review, vol. 1, n. 2, 1942, pp. 121–135. URL consultato il 18 marzo 2008.
42. ^ Schlinger, H.D., The Myth of Intelligence, in The Psychological Record, vol. 53, n. 1, 2003, pp. 15–33. URL consultato il 18 marzo 2008.
43. ^ Gottfredson, L. S. (2006). Social consequences of group differences in cognitive ability (Consequencias sociais das diferencas de grupo em habilidade cognitiva). In C. E. Flores-Mendoza & R. Colom (Eds.), Introducau a psicologia das diferencas individuais (pp. 433-456). Porto Allegre, Brazil: ArtMed Publishers.
44. ^ [2]^{[collegamento interrotto]}
45. ^ Multiple Intelligence: The theory in practice, New York, Basic Books, 1993, ISBN 046501822^{ISBN non valido (aiuto)}.
46. ^ Sternberg, R.J., Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1985, ISBN 0-521-26254-2.
47. ^ Sternberg, R.J., The theory of successful intelligence, in Review of General Psychology, vol. 3, n. 4, 1978, pp. 292–316, DOI:10.1037/1089-2680.3.4.292.
48. ^ Sternberg, R.J., A broad view of intelligence: The theory of successful intelligence, in Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice & Research, vol. 55, n. 3, 2003, pp. 139–154, DOI:10.1037/1061-4087.55.3.139.
49. ^ Brody, N., Construct validation of the Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test: Comment and reanalysis, in Intelligence, vol. 31, n. 4, 2003, pp. 319–329, DOI:10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00087-3.
50. ^ Brody, N., What Sternberg should have concluded, in Intelligence, vol. 31, n. 4, 2003, pp. 339–342, DOI:10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00190-3.
51. ^ Gottfredson, L.S., Dissecting practical intelligence theory: Its claims and evidence, in Intelligence, vol. 31, n. 4, 2003, pp. 343–397, DOI:10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00085-5.
52. ^ Gottfredson, L.S., On Sternberg's 'Reply to Gottfredson[[:Template:'-]], in Intelligence, vol. 31, n. 4, 2003, pp. 415–424, DOI:10.1016/S0160-2896(03)00024-2. Wikilink compreso nell'URL del titolo (aiuto)
53. Luria, A. R. (1966). Higher cortical functions in man. New York: Basic Books.
54. ^ Das, J. P., Naglieri, J. A., & Kirby, J. R. (1994). Assessment of cognitive processes. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
55. ^ Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain: An introduction to neuropsychology. New York.
56. ^ Das,J.P.(2002) A Better look at Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychology, 11(1), 28-32.
57. Piaget, J. (2001). Psychology of intelligence. Routledge.
58. ^ Elkind, D., & Flavell, J. (1969). Studies in cognitive development: Essays in honor of Jean Piaget. New York: Oxford University Press
59. ^ Intelligence and IQ, Landmark Issues and Great Debates, Richard A. Weinberg AmericanVol. 44, No. 2, 98-104
60. ^ Piaget, J. (1953). The origin of intelligence in the child. New Fetter Lane, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
61. ^ DOI: 10.1007/BF00592203
62. ^ Demetriou, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K.F.M. van Lieshout (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology (pp. 179-269). London: Wiley.
63. ^ Demetriou, A., Mouyi, A., & Spanoudis, G. (2010). The development of mental processing. Nesselroade, J.R. (2011). Methods in the study of life-span human development: Issues and answers. In W.F. Overton (Ed.), Biology, cognition and methods across the life-span. Volume 1 of the Handbook of life-span development (pp. 36-35), Editor-in-chief: R.M. Lerner. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
64. ^ Osborn, F., Development of a Eugenic Philosophy, in American Sociological Review, vol. 2, n. 3, 1937, pp. 389–397, DOI:10.2307/2084871.
65. ^ Tang YP, Shimizu E, Dube GR, et al., Genetic enhancement of learning and memory in mice, in Nature, vol. 401, n. 6748, 1999, pp. 63–9, DOI:10.1038/43432.
66. ^ W. Johnson, C. E. Brett and I. J. Deary. (2010). The pivotal role of education in the association between ability and social class attainment: A look across three generations. Intelligence, 38, 55-65
67. ^ C. N. Brinch and T. A. Galloway. (2012). Schooling in adolescence raises IQ scores. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 109, 425-30
68. ^ Zach, Does Working Memory Training Generalize?, in Psychologica Belgica, vol. 50, 3–4, 2010, pp. 245–276.
69. ^ Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., Perrig, W. J. (2008), Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 105 no. 19
70. ^ Alexis Madrigal, Forget Brain Age: Researchers Develop Software That Makes You Smarter, Wired, April 2008
71. ^ Moody, D. E. (2009), Can intelligence be increased by training on a task of working memory? Intelligence, Volume 37, Issue 4, July–August 2009, Pages 327-328, DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2009.04.005
72. ^ Friedman, L.F. (2011, July).Intellegent Intercourse. Psychology Today. 44, 41.
73. ^ Mark Thompson, 3, in Who Should You Have Sex With, Sourcebooks Casablanca, 1, p. 78, ISBN 978-1402242045.
    
    «In my studies, men and women who described themselves as smart, intelligent, logical and imaginative reported thinking about sex more often, fantasizing about sex, and having sex more often than people who did not see themselves as smart or intellectual. They also usually had a wider scope of sexual experiences, including experience with role-playing and other Kinky activities.»
74. ^ Matte TD, Bresnahan M, Begg MD, Susser E, Influence of variation in birth weight within normal range and within sibships on IQ at age 7 years: cohort study, in BMJ, vol. 323, n. 7308, August 2001, pp. 310–4, DOI:10.1136/bmj.323.7308.310.
75. ^ The Future of Children - Sub-Sections, su futureofchildren.org. URL consultato il 28 novembre 2007 (archiviato dall'url originale il 22 ottobre 2007).
76. ^ HEALTH | Intelligence linked to birthweight, in BBC News, 9 agosto 2001. URL consultato il 28 novembre 2007.
77. Plant neurobiology: no brain, no gain? Alpi A, Amrhein N, Bertl A, Blatt MR, Blumwald E, Cervone F, Dainty J, De Michelis MI, Epstein E, Galston AW, Goldsmith MH, Hawes C, Hell R, Hetherington A, Hofte H, Juergens G, Leaver CJ, Moroni A, Murphy A, Oparka K, Perata P, Quader H, Rausch T, Ritzenthaler C, Rivetta A, Robinson DG, Sanders D, Scheres B, Schumacher K, Sentenac H, Slayman CL, Soave C, Somerville C, Taiz L, Thiel G, Wagner R. (2007). Trends Plant Sci. Apr;12(4):135-6. PMID 17368081
78. ^ PMID 17499006
79. ^ PMID 17591455
80. ^ Sorgenti: ↑  : Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Alpha, dictionnaires Larousse et Robert. Pour le raisonnement, dictionnaire en ligne TLFI ↑ Prolégomènes, tome II, page 323 http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Ibn_Khaldoun/Prolegomenes_t2/ibn_pro_II.pdf [archive] ↑ Jean Piaget, La Construction du Réel, 1936 ↑ A formal definition of intelligence based on an intensional variant of Kolmogorov complexity, Jose Hernandez-orallo, Proceedings of the International Symposium of Engineering of Intelligent Systems (EIS'98). ↑ Marcus Hutter, « A Theory of Universal Artificial Intelligence based on Algorithmic Complexity », dans cs/0004001, 2000-04-03 [texte intégral [archive] (page consultée le 2010-03-11)] ↑ (en) Marcus Hutter, Universal Artificial Intelligence: Sequential Decisions Based On Algorithmic Probability, Berlin, SpringerVerlag, 2005 (ISBN 978-3-540-22139-5) (LCCN 2004112980) [lire en ligne [archive] (page consultée le 2010-04-30)] ↑ R. J Solomonoff, « A Formal Theory of Inductive Inference. Part I », dans Information and Control, vol. 7, no 1, 1964, p. 1-22 ↑ J. Veness, « A Monte Carlo AIXI Approximation », dans Arxiv preprint arXiv:0909.0801, 2009 ↑ a et b Aljoscha Neubauer, Les mille facettes de l'intelligence, Pour la Science, Cerveau & psycho, n°1, page 49.
81. ^ Gottfredson, L.S., Foreword to "intelligence and social policy", in Intelligence,, volume 24, fascicolo 1, 1997, pp. pagine 1–12, DOI:10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90010-6. URL consultato il 18 marzo 2008. Parametro sconosciuto format ignorato (aiuto)
82. ^ http://www.psicolife.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=188:intelligenza&catid=10009:saggie-e-articoli&Itemid=226
83. ^ http://www.opsonline.it/printable-16916-intelligenza.html