Utente:Drow/Sandbox

17th-century manuscript illustration showing Amblett, on whom Shakespeare's Hamlet is based

Hamlet is a figure in Scandinavian romance and the hero of Shakespeare's tragedy, Hamlet, Prince of Denmark.

The chief authority for the legend of Hamlet is Saxo Grammaticus, who devotes to it parts of the third and fourth books of his Gesta Danorum, completed at the beginning of the 13th century. There are no means of determining whether Saxo derived his information in this case from oral or written sources.

Saxo's version

Briefly Saxo's version of Hamlet's history is as follows: Gervendill, governor of Jutland, was succeeded by his sons Horvendill and Feng. Horvendill, on his return from a Viking expedition in which he had slain Koll, king of Norway, married Gerutha, daughter of Rørik Slyngebond, king of Denmark; she bore him a son, Amleth. But Feng, out of jealousy, murdered Horvendill, and persuaded Gerutha to become his wife, on the plea that he had committed the crime for no other reason than to avenge her of a husband who had hated her. Amleth, afraid of sharing his father's fate, pretended to be an imbecile, but the suspicion of Feng put him to various tests which are related in detail. Among other things they sought to entangle him with a young girl, his foster-sister (the prototype of Ophelia), but his cunning saved him. When, however, Amleth slew the eavesdropper hidden (like Polonius in Shakespeare's play), in his mother's room, and destroyed all trace of the deed, Feng was assured that the young man's madness was feigned. Accordingly he dispatched him to Britain in company with two attendants, who bore a letter enjoining the king of the country to put him to death. Amleth surmised the purport of their instructions, and secretly altered the message on their wooden tablets to the effect that the king should put the attendants to death and give Amleth his daughter in marriage.

After marrying the princess, Amleth returned at the end of a year to Denmark. Of the wealth he had accumulated he took with him only certain hollow sticks filled with gold. He arrived in time for a funeral feast, held to celebrate his supposed death. During the feast he plied the courtiers with wine, and executed his vengeance during their drunken sleep by fastening down over them the woolen hangings of the hall with pegs he had sharpened during his feigned madness, and then setting fire to the palace. Feng he slew with his own sword. After a long harangue to the people he was proclaimed king. Returning to Britain for his wife he found that his father-in-law and Feng had been pledged each to avenge the other's death. The English king, unwilling to personally carry out his pledge, sent Amleth as proxy wooer for the hand of a terrible Scottish queen, Hermuthruda, who had put all former wooers to death but fell in love with Amleth. On his return to Britain his first wife, whose love proved stronger than her resentment, told him of her father's intended revenge. In the ensuing battle, Amleth won the day by setting up the fallen dead from the day before on stakes, thereby terrifying the enemy.

He then returned with his two wives to Jutland, where he had to encounter the enmity of Wiglek, Rørik's successor. He was slain in a battle against Wiglek, and Hermuthruda, although she had promised to die with him, married the victor. Saxo states that Amleth was buried on a plain (or "heath") in Jutland, famous for his name and burial place.

In 1933 a stone was raised in Amleth's memory on a burial mound near the tiny Jutlandic village of Ammelhede, which according to local tradition means "Amleth's heath" and is the site of the historical Hamlet's grave.^[1] However, the burial mound itself is from the Bronze Age, erected 1,700 years before the time that Hamlet was supposed to have lived according to Saxo.^[2] Wiglek died of illness and was the father of Wermund from whom the royal line of Kings of Mercia descended.

Chronicon Lethrense and Annales lundenses

The even earlier source Chronicle of the Kings of Leijre (and the included Annals of Lund) tells that the Danish king Rorik Slengeborre put Orwendel and Feng as his rulers in Jutland, and gave his daughter to Orwendel as a reward for his good services. Orwendel and the daughter had a son, Amblothæ the Jutlander. The jealous Feng killed Orwendel and took his wife. Amblothæ understood that his life was in danger and tried to survive by playing insane. Feng sent Amblothæ to the king of Britain with two servants carrying a message that the British king should kill Amblothæ. While the servants slept, Amblothæ carved off the (probably runic) message and wrote that the servants should be killed and himself married to the king's daughter. The British king did what the message said. Exactly one year later, Feng drank to Amblothæ's memory, but Amblothæ appeared and killed him. He then burnt Feng's men to death in a tent and became the ruler of Jutland. Then he went back to Britain to kill the British king who wanted to avenge Feng's death, and married the queen of Scotland. Amblothæ went back to Jutland and was killed in battle upon arrival.

Prose Edda

In the Skáldskaparmál section of the Prose Edda, Snorri Sturluson quotes a poem by the skald Snæbjörn, which could be considerably older than the version found in Gesta Danorum and Chronicon lethrense. The mysterious lines are quoted in Skáldskaparmál as an example of Amlóði's churn as a kenning for the sea:

Sem Snæbjörn kvað: 94. Hvatt kveða hræra Grótta hergrimmastan skerja út fyrir jarðar skauti eylúðrs níu brúðir, þær er, lungs, fyrir löngu, líðmeldr, skipa hlíðar baugskerðir rístr barði ból, Amlóða mólu. Hér er kallat hafit Amlóða kvern. (Guðni Jónsson's edition)

As Snæbjorn sang: ... They say nine brides of skerries Swiftly move the Sea-Churn Of Grótti's Island-Flour-Bin Beyond the Earth's last outskirt – They who long the corny ale ground Of Amlódí; the Giver Of Rings now cuts with ship's beak The Abiding-Place of boat-sides. Here the sea is called Amlódi's Churn. (Brodeur's translation, 1916)

Prose translation:

It is said, sang Snæbjörn, that far out, off yonder headland, the Nine Maids of the Island Mill violently stir the host-cruel skerry-quern — they who in ages past ground Amlóði's meal. The good chieftain furrows the hull's lair with his ship's beaked prow. Here the sea is called Amloði's Mill.

Other Scandinavian versions

The other Scandinavian versions of the tale are: the Hrólfs saga kraka, where the brothers Helgi (known as Halga in Beowulf) and Hroar (Hroðgar) take the place of the hero; the tale of Harald and Halfdan, as related in the 7th book of Saxo Grammaticus; the modern Icelandic Ambale's Saga, a romantic tale the earliest manuscript of which dates from the 17th century; and the folk-tale of Brjam which was put in writing in 1707. Helgi and Hroar, like Harald and Halfdan, avenge their father's death on their uncle by burning him in his palace. Harald and Halfdan escape after their father's death by being brought up, with dogs' names, in a hollow oak, and subsequently by feigned madness; and in the case of the other brothers there are traces of a similar motive, since the boys are called by dogs' names. The methods of Hamlet's madness, as related by Saxo, seem to point to cynanthropy. In the Ambale's Saga, which perhaps is collateral to, rather than derived from, Saxo's version, there are, besides romantic additions, some traits which point to an earlier version of the tale.

Saxo Grammaticus was certainly familiar with the Latin historians, and it is most probable that, recognising the similarity between the northern Hamlet legend and the classical tale of Lucius Junius Brutus as told by Livy, by Valerius Maximus, and by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (with which he was probably acquainted through a Latin epitome), he deliberately added circumstances from the classical story. The incident of the gold-filled sticks could hardly appear fortuitously in both, and a comparison of the harangues of Amleth (Saxo, Book iv.) and of Brutus (Dionysius, iv. 77) shows marked similarities. In both tales the usurping uncle is ultimately succeeded by the nephew who has escaped notice during his youth by a feigned madness. But the parts played by the personages who in Shakespeare became Ophelia and Polonius, the method of revenge, and the whole narrative of Amleth's adventure in England, have no parallels in the Latin story.

There are also striking similarities between the story of Amleth in Saxo and the other northern versions, and that of Kai Khosrow in the Shahnameh (Book of the King) of the Persian poet Firdausi. Further resemblances exist in the Ambale's Saga with the tales of Bellerophon, of Heracles, and of Servius Tullius. That Oriental tales through Byzantine and Arabian channels did find their way to the west is well known, and there is nothing very surprising in their being attached to a local hero.

The tale of Hamlet's adventures in Britain forms an episode so distinct that it was at one time referred to a separate hero. The traitorous letter, the purport of which is changed by Hamlet, occurs in the popular Dit de l'empereur Constant, and in Arabian and Indian tales. Hermuthruda's cruelty to her wooers is common in northern and German mythology, and close parallels are afforded by Þryð, the terrible bride of Offa, who figures in Beowulf, by Brunhilda in the Nibelungenlied, and by Sigrid the Haughty in the Heimskringla.

Parallels in Britain and Ireland

Despite the fact that Shakespeare set his story in Denmark, and his actors even visited Kronborg in 1586 and seem to have brought details back used by Shakespeare,^[1] some theorists have tried to tie Hamlet primarily to Ireland. More likely, however, some of the additional facts not in the Scandinavian legend may have come from these sources.

The argument is that there are close parallels between the tale of Hamlet and the English romances of Havelok, King Horn and Bevis of Hampton -- tales from the Middle Ages that followed years of rule by Danes and other Vikings. ^{[senza fonte]}. Thus a similar name also occurs in the Irish Annals of the Four Masters -- compiled in the 1600s—in a stanza attributed to the Irish Queen Gormflaith, who laments the death of her husband, Niall Glundubh, at the hands of Amhlaide in 919 at the battle of Ath-Cliath. The slayer of Niall Glundubh is by other authorities stated to have been Sigtrygg Caech. Sigtrygg was the father of that Olaf Cuaran (also known as Anlaf) who was the prototype of the English Havelok, but nowhere else does he receive the nickname of Amhlaide. If Amhlaide may really be identified with Sigtrygg, who first went to Dublin in 888, the relations between the tales of Havelok and Hamlet show other ways that stories paralleled each other. But, whoever the historic Hamlet may have been, it is quite certain that much was added that was extraneous to Scandinavian tradition and some details may have made their way into Shakespeare's final play.

Hugh Kenner has attempted to argue that the Hamlet name originated because the first literate people the Danes encountered were the Irish. The Irish Gaelic spelling of Olaf is Amhlaoibh, which Kenner suggests was mistranscribed into Latin as Amlethus. Thus Kenner claims that "Amleth" or "Amblett" of Saxo also likely derived from this transliteration from Gaelic to Latin.^[3] The theory is however contradicted by archeological finds in Denmark, where the name Amlet is recorded on runic artifacts dated ca. 700, before Danes made significant incursions into Ireland.^[1] Moreover, Vikings not only visited Ireland and England but ruled both before all of these tales were first written.^[4] The tale of Havelok, in fact, is called, "Havelok the Dane"—even indicating its own possible Scandinavian origins.

Belleforest's tragedies

The story of Hamlet was known to the Elizabethans in the V story of the V volume of François de Belleforest's Histoires tragiques (Paris, Chez Jean Hupeau, 1572, Fueil 149); an English version, The Hystorie of Hamblet was published in 1608. That as early as 1587 or 1589 Hamlet had appeared on the English stage is shown by Nashe's preface to Greene's Menaphon (see: Ur-Hamlet). The Shakespearean Hamlet owes, however, but the outline of his story to Saxo. In character he is diametrically opposed to his prototype. Amleth's madness was certainly altogether feigned; he prepared his vengeance a year beforehand, and carried it out deliberately and ruthlessly at every point. His riddling speech has little more than an outward similarity to the words of Hamlet, who resembles him, however, in his disconcerting penetration into his enemies' plans.

See also

Template:Hamlet (EN) Hugh Chisholm (a cura di), Enciclopedia Britannica, XI, Cambridge University Press, 1911.

References

1. Michael Skovmand, Verdens bedst kendte dansker: Hamlet er så levende som aldre før", Kronik, Aarhus Stiftstidende, 1 February 1992, at Department of English, University of Aarhus Template:Dk icon
2. ^ Hamlets Grav - fiktion og virkelighed at Danske Fortidsminder Template:Dk icon
3. ^ Hugh Kenner, A Colder Eye, Baltimore MD, Johns Hopkins Paperbacks, 1989, pp. 82–83, ISBN 0-8018-3838-X.
4. ^ Pierre Barthélemy's of Viking attacks in 795 – 1098, at Viking Age, reisenett.no, retrieved 27 February 2012.

External links

• Excerpts from The Sources of Hamlet: With an Essay on the Legend by Israel Gollancz (New York: Octagon, 1967).
• Peter Tunstall's translation of the Chronicon lethrense at The Chronicle of the Kings of Lejre
• Prose Edda Arthur G. Brodeur's translation (1916)
• Saxo Grammaticus' "Amleth, Prince of Denmark" Oliver Elton's translation (1894)
• Saxo Grammaticus' The Danish History, Books I-IX
• Prince Of Denmark 1994 Film by Gabriel Axel with Gabriel Byrne as Fenge.

Mycena inclinata

Template:Stack begin

Come leggere il tassobox {{{nome}}}
Classificazione scientifica

Template:Mycomorphbox Template:Stack end

Mycena inclinata, commonly known as the clustered bonnet or the oak-stump bonnet cap, is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. The doubtfully edible mushroom has a reddish-brown bell-shaped cap up to 4,5 cm (1,8 in) in diameter. The thin stem is up to 9 cm (3,5 in) tall, whitish to yellow-brown at the top but progressively becoming reddish-brown towards the base in maturity, where they are covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem. The gills are pale brown to pinkish, and the spore print is white. It is a widespread saprobic fungus, and has been found in Europe, North Africa, Asia, Australasia, and North America, where it grows in small groups or tufts on fallen logs and stumps, especially of oak. British mycologist E.J.H. Corner has described two varieties of the mushroom from Borneo. Lookalike species with which M. inclinata may be confused include M. galericulata and M. maculata.

Taxonomy, phylogeny, and naming

First described as Agaricus inclinatus by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1838,^[1] it was assigned its current name in 1872 by Lucien Quélet.^[2] Mycena galericulata var. calopus (named by Karsten in 1879), and its basionym Agaricus galericulatus var. calopus (named by Fries in 1873), are synonyms.^[3]

In a molecular study of the large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences of mycorrhizal fungi of the orchid Gastrodia confusa, M. inclinata was found to be closely related to M. aurantiomarginata, M. crocata, and M. leaiana.^[4]

The specific epithet inclinata means "bent in".^[5] The mushroom is commonly known as the "clustered bonnet"^[6] or the "oak-stump bonnet cap".^[7]

Description

 

The stems gradually become deep brown near the base.

The cap is light reddish-brown, with a diameter typically ranging from 1 fino a 4,5 cm (0,4 fino a 1,8 in). Initially conic to bell-shaped to convex, it flattens during maturity, developing visible surface grooves corresponding to the gills underneath the cap.^[8] The margin of the cap has minute but distinct scallops.^[9] The surface is moist and smooth, and hygrophanous. The cap frequently develops splits in the margin, or cracks in the disc (the central part of the cap). The flesh of the cap is thick in the center but thin elsewhere, grayish to whitish, fragile, and with a slightly mealy odor and taste. The gills have a decurrent attachment to the stem (that is, running down the length of the stem) and are a pale brownish color with tinges of red. They are broad (between 3 and 6 mm), and have a close to subdistant spacing, with about 26–35 gills reaching the stem.^[10] The fragile stem is 3 fino a 9 cm (1,2 fino a 3,5 in) long by 0,15 fino a 0,4 cm (0,06 fino a 0,16 in) thick and yellow to yellow-brown, becoming reddish-brown to orange-brown in the bottom half in maturity. The lower portion of young stems is covered with white flecks. Roughly equal in thickness at the top and bottom, the base of the stem is covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem.^[11] The edibility of the mushroom is "doubtful" and consumption "best avoided".^[9]

Microscopic characteristics

The spores are 7–9 by 5–6.5 μm, broadly ellipsoid, smooth, and strongly amyloid (it turns black when treated with Melzer's reagent). The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored. The pleurocystidia (cystidia on the gill face) are not differentiated. The cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge) are embedded in the gill edge and very inconspicuous, club-shaped, 26–36 by 5–10 μm, and have tips that are covered with contorted projections that can be slender or thick. The flesh of the gills is homogeneous, and pale yellowish to dirty brown when stained in iodine. The flesh of the cap has a distinct pellicle, a well-differentiated hypoderm (a region of tissue immediately under the pellicle), and a filamentous tramal body (gill tissue); it is pale yellowish to sordid brownish in iodine stain.^[10]

Varieties

E.J.H. Corner defined the varieties M. inclinata var. kinabaluensis and var. subglobospora in his 1994 publication on Agaric mushrooms of Malesia, a biogeographical region straddling the boundary of the Indomalaya and Australasia ecozones. The variety kinabaluensis (named after its type locality, Kinabalu) has a cap margin that is not scalloped, little or no odor, and cheilocystidia with shorter processes. It was found growing on the dead wood of Lithocarpus havilandii, a stone oak tree in the beech family. Variety subglobospora, found in Sabah, has spores that are almost spherical.^[12]

Similar species

 

M. galericulata is a lookalike species.

Mycena maculata bears some resemblance to M. inclinata, but is only associated with decaying hardwood logs and stumps, and is found in eastern North America, and sometimes on oak on the West Coast. In age, it develops reddish spots on the gills that are not seen in M. inclinata.^[8] M. inclinata is often confused with the edible M. galericulata, a common species that is variable in cap color, size and shape. M. galericulata typically has a bluntly conical cap that is dull gray-brown, and white to grayish veins that have numerous cross-veins.^[9] M. polygramma has a ridged stem that is bluish-gray.^[7]

Habitat and distribution

Mycena inclinata is a saprobic fungus, deriving its nutrients from decomposing organic matter found in plant litter such as leaves, twigs, bark and branches. It accomplishes this by producing enzymes capable of breaking down the three major biochemical components of plant cell walls found in litter: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.^[13]

The fruit bodies of Mycena inclinata grow in dense groups or clusters on decaying hardwood logs and stumps (especially oak and chestnut) during the spring and autumn.^[10][7] The fungus forms a white, woolly mycelium on the surface of decomposing oak leaves.^[13] Occasionally, it can be found growing on a living tree.^[11] In eastern North America, it is abundant in the area bounded by Nova Scotia, Ontario, Manitoba, Missouri, North Carolina, and New York. It has been found in Oregon, but the species appears to be generally rare along the Pacific Coast.^[10] The range of the fungus also includes Europe, the Canary Islands, North Africa, East Siberia, Japan,^[11] Malesia,^[12] Turkey,^[14] and New Zealand.^[15]

Chemistry

In a study of the trace metal concentrations of various mushrooms species found in Ordu (Turkey), M. inclinata was found to have comparatively high levels of iron (628 mg per kg) and nickel (21.6 mg/kg), measured on a dry weight basis.^[16] Laboratory studies have shown that the fungus is resistant to aluminum.^[14] The fungus has been investigated for its ability to decolorize synthetic dyes that are used in the textile, plastics, biomedical and foodstuff industries. The dyes are not readily biodegradable, and when discharged into the environment are persistent and many are toxic.^[17]

See also

• List of bioluminescent fungi

References

1. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Fries1838
2. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Quelet1872
3. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore urlMycoBank: Mycena inclinata
4. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore OguraTsujita2009
5. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Rea1922
6. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore BMS
7. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Pegler 2000
8. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Miller2006
9. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Kibby1994
10. Smith, pp. 338–40.
11. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Treu1996
12. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Corner1994
13. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Steffen2007
14. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Hoiland2008
15. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Stevenson1964
16. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Mendil2005
17. ^ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Baldrian2006

Cited text

• Smith AH., North American species of Mycena, Ann Arbor, Michigan, University of Michigan Press, 1947.

External links

• Template:IndexFungorum

Plasticità cerebrale

Biography

While there he became an avid comic-book fan, developing a strong interest in the innovative superheroes being published by Marvel Comics.^[1] Fantastic Four No. 20 (Nov 1963) printed a letter Martin wrote to the editor, the first of many sent, e.g., FF #32, #34, and others from his family's home at 35 E. First Street, Bayonne, NJ. Other fans wrote him letters, and through such contacts Martin joined the fledgling comics fandom of the era, writing fiction for various fanzines.^[2] In 1965 Martin won comic fandom's Alley Award for his prose superhero story "Powerman vs. The Blue Barrier," the first of many awards he would go on to win for his fiction.

In 1970 Martin earned a B. S. in Journalism from Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, graduating summa cum laude; he went on to complete his M. S. in Journalism in 1971, also from Northwestern. Eligible for the draft during the Vietnam War, to which he objected, Martin applied for and obtained conscientious-objector status;^[3] he instead did alternative service work for two years (1972–1974) as a VISTA volunteer, attached to the Cook County Legal Assistance Foundation. He also directed chess tournaments for the Continental Chess Association from 1973 to 1976. Then from 1976 to 1978 he was an English and journalism instructor at Clarke University (then Clarke College) in Dubuque, IA, becoming Writer In Residence at the college from 1978 to 1979.

Martin began selling science-fiction short stories professionally in 1970, at age 21. His first story, "The Hero", sold to Galaxy magazine and was published in its February 1971 issue; other sales soon followed. The first story of his nominated for the Hugo Award^[4] and the Nebula Award was With Morning Comes Mistfall, published in 1973 by Analog magazine. A member of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA), Martin became the organization's Southwest Regional Director from 1977 to 1979; from 1996 to 1998 he served as its vice-president.

In 1976, for Kansas City's MidAmeriCon, the 34th World Science Fiction Convention (Worldcon), Martin and his friend and fellow writer-editor Gardner Dozois conceived of and organized the first Hugo Losers Party for the benefit of all past and present Hugo-losing writers, their friends and families the evening following the convention's Hugo Awards ceremony. Martin was nominated for two Hugos that year but ultimately wound up losing both awards, for the novelette "...and Seven Times Never Kill Man" and the novella The Storms of Windhaven, co-written with Lisa Tuttle.^[5] The Hugo Losers Party became an annual Worldcon event thereafter, its formal title eventually evolving into something a little more politically correct as both its size and prestige grew.

Although Martin often writes fantasy or horror, a number of his earlier works tell science-fiction tales occurring in a loosely defined future history, known informally as "The Thousand Worlds" or "The Manrealm". He has also written at least one piece of political-military fiction, "Night of the Vampyres", collected in Harry Turtledove's anthology The Best Military Science Fiction of the 20th Century.^[6]

The unexpected commercial failure of Martin's fourth book, The Armageddon Rag (1983), "essentially destroyed my career as a novelist at the time", he recalled. It began his career in television, however,^[7] as a result of a Hollywood option on that novel that then led to him being hired, first as a staff writer and then as an Executive Story Consultant, for the revival of the Twilight Zone. When the CBS series ran its course, Martin and other Twilight Zone staff writers migrated over to the already underway satirical science fiction series Max Headroom. While there he wrote scripts and created the show's Ped Xing character, the president of the Zic Zak corporation, Network 23's primary sponsor. Before his completed scripts could go into production, the ABC show was canceled in the middle of its second season. Martin then became a producer on the dramatic fantasy series Beauty and the Beast; in 1989 he became the show's co-supervising producer. He also wrote 14 episodes.^[8] During this same period, he also worked in print media as a book-series editor, overseeing the development of the lengthy and still on-going Wild Cards series, which takes place in a shared universe in which a small slice of post–World War II humanity gains superpowers after the release of an alien-engineered virus. In Second Person Martin "gives a personal account of the close-knit role-playing game (RPG) culture that gave rise to his Wild Cards shared-world anthologies".^[9] Martin's own contributions to the multiple-author series often feature Thomas Tudbury, "The Great and Powerful Turtle", a powerful psychokinetic whose flying "shell" consisted of an armored VW Beetle. As of June 2011, 21 Wild Cards volumes had been published in the series; earlier that same year, Martin signed the contract for the 22nd volume, Low Ball, which has since been completed and will be published by Tor Books in mid-summer of 2014. In early 2012 Martin signed another Tor contract for the 23rd Wild Cards volume, High Stakes.

Martin's novella, Nightflyers, was adapted into a 1987 feature film of the same title; he was not happy about having to cut plot elements for the screenplay's scenario in order to accommodate the film's small budget.^[10]

 

Teaching at Clarion West, 1998.

Relationship with fans

 

GRRM signing books in a bookstore in Ljubljana, Slovenia (June 2011)

Martin is known for his regular attendance through the decades at science fiction conventions and comics conventions and his accessibility to fans. In the early 1980s, critic and writer Thomas Disch identified Martin as a member of the "Labor Day Group", writers who regularly congregated at the annual Worldcon,^[11] usually held on or around the Labor Day weekend. Since the early 1970s he has also attended regional science fiction conventions, and since 1986 Martin has participated annually in Albuquerque's smaller regional convention Bubonicon, near his New Mexico home.^[12]

Martin's official fan club is the "Brotherhood Without Banners," who have a regular posting board at the Forum of the large website, westeros.org, which is focused on his Song of Ice and Fire fantasy series. At the annual World Science Fiction Convention every year, the BWB hosts a large, on-going hospitality suite that is open to all members of the Worldcon;^[13] their suite frequently wins by popular vote the convention's best party award.^{[senza fonte]}

Martin has been criticized by some of his readers for the long periods between books in the Ice and Fire series, notably the six-year gap between the fourth volume, A Feast for Crows (2005), and the fifth volume, A Dance with Dragons (2011).^[14][15] In 2010 Martin responded to these criticisms by saying he was unwilling to write only his Ice and Fire series, noting that working on other prose and compiling and editing different book projects has always been part of his working process.^[16]

Martin is strongly opposed to fan fiction, believing it to be copyright infringement and a bad exercise for aspiring writers.^[17][18]

Personal life

In the early 1970s Martin was in a relationship with fellow science-fiction/fantasy author Lisa Tuttle,^[19] with whom he co-wrote Windhaven.

While attending an east coast science fiction convention he met his first wife Gale Burnick; they were married in 1975, but the marriage ended in divorce, without children, in 1979.

Since 1979 Martin has made Santa Fe, New Mexico his home; in 2013 he purchased the Jean Cocteau Cinema in Santa Fe, which had been closed since 2006, in order to restore and upgrade this landmark Santa Fe cinema to full operation as a general and special events theater. ^[20][21]

On February 15, 2011, Martin married his longtime paramour Parris McBride during a small ceremony at their Santa Fe, New Mexico, home; the couple exchanged Celtic-inspired wedding rings custom-made for them by local artisans. Area friends were in attendance and helped them celebrate the occasion.^[22] On August 19, 2011, they held a larger wedding ceremony and reception at Renovation, the 69th World Science Fiction Convention, in Reno, Nevada for their larger circle of friends within the fantasy and science fiction fields.^[23]

Martin maintains a LiveJournal account called "Not A Blog" where he posts about his works and various unrelated topics such as politics and the NFL: he is a lifelong supporter of the Democratic Party and claimed Jimmy Carter, during an interview with Authors@Google, to be "clearly the best human being to be president during my lifetime". He has recently expressed admiration for Barack Obama and strongly condemned attempts at voter suppression, likening it to the behavior of Democrats of the Solid South and citing the pro-voting rights Republicans of his youth as a far better rolemodel for the conservative movement, citing youthful admiration for specifically Everett Dirksen, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., Clifford Case, William Scranton and Barry Goldwater.^[24] Martin is an avid, lifelong fan of both the New York Jets and New York Giants. His LJ "Not a Blog" posts have been reposted at times by someone else to a George R. R. Martin Facebook page, but Martin has never been a member of that online community or a reader of its posts; he also does not use Twitter.

Martin spends his spare time reading voraciously on a variety of topics, collecting medieval-themed miniatures, watching professional football on television (in season), reading and collecting science fiction, fantasy, and horror books, and treasuring his large comics collection, which includes the first issues of Marvel's "silver age" Spider-Man and Fantastic Four.

He and his wife Parris are supporters of the Wild Spirit Wolf Sanctuary in New Mexico.^[25] Martin has noted his admiration for wolves not only in his books but also through fundraising.^[26][27]

In response to a question regarding his religious views, Martin replied, "I suppose I’m a lapsed Catholic. You would consider me an atheist or agnostic. I find religion and spirituality fascinating. I would like to believe this isn’t the end and there’s something more, but I can’t convince the rational part of me that makes any sense whatsoever. That’s what Tolkien left out — there’s no priesthood, there’s no temples; nobody is worshiping anything in the Rings." ^[28]

Human intelligence

Psychometrics

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Intelligence quotient e Psychometrics.

 

The IQs of a large enough population are calculated so that they conform^[29] to a normal distribution.

The approach to understanding intelligence with the most supporters and published research over the longest period of time is based on psychometric testing. It is also by far the most widely used in practical settings. Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests include the Stanford-Binet, Raven's Progressive Matrices, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children. There are also psychometric tests that are not intended to measure intelligence itself but some closely related construct such as scholastic aptitude. In the United States examples include the SSAT, the SAT, the ACT, the GRE, the MCAT, the LSAT, and the GMAT.^[30]

Intelligence tests are widely used in educational,^[31] business, and military settings because of their efficacy in predicting behavior. IQ and g (discussed in the next section) are correlated with many important social outcomes—individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced, have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long-term welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income.^[32] Intelligence is significantly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes, and IQ/g is the single best predictor of successful job performance.^[30][33]

General intelligence factor or g

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: G factor (psychometrics).

There are many different kinds of IQ tests using a wide variety of test tasks. Some tests consist of a single type of task, others rely on a broad collection of tasks with different contents (visual-spatial,^[34] verbal, numerical) and asking for different cognitive processes (e.g., reasoning, memory, rapid decisions, visual comparisons, spatial imagery, reading, and retrieval of general knowledge). The psychologist Charles Spearman early in the 20th century carried out the first formal factor analysis of correlations between various test tasks. He found a trend for all such tests to correlate positively with each other, which is called a positive manifold. Spearman found that a single common factor explained the positive correlations among tests. Spearman named it g for "general intelligence factor". He interpreted it as the core of human intelligence that, to a larger or smaller degree, influences success in all cognitive tasks and thereby creates the positive manifold. This interpretation of g as a common cause of test performance is still dominant in psychometrics. An alternative interpretation was recently advanced by van der Maas and colleagues.^[35] Their mutualism model assumes that intelligence depends on several independent mechanisms, none of which influences performance on all cognitive tests. These mechanisms support each other so that efficient operation of one of them makes efficient operation of the others more likely, thereby creating the positive manifold.

IQ tasks and tests can be ranked by how highly they load on the g factor. Tests with high g-loadings are those that correlate highly with most other tests. One comprehensive study investigating the correlations between a large collection of tests and tasks^[36] has found that the Raven's Progressive Matrices have a particularly high correlation with most other tests and tasks. The Raven's is a test of inductive reasoning with abstract visual material. It consists of a series of problems, sorted approximately by increasing difficulty. Each problem presents a 3 x 3 matrix of abstract designs with one empty cell; the matrix is constructed according to a rule, and the person must find out the rule to determine which of 8 alternatives fits into the empty cell. Because of its high correlation with other tests, the Raven's Progressive Matrices are generally acknowledged as a good indicator of general intelligence. This is problematic, however, because there are substantial gender differences on the Raven's,^[37] which are not found when g is measured directly by computing the general factor from a broad collection of tests.^[38]

Historical psychometric theories

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Intelligence quotient § History.

Several different theories of intelligence have historically been important. Often they emphasized more factors than a single one like in g factor.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory.

Many of the broad, recent IQ tests have been greatly influenced by the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory. It is argued to reflect much of what is known about intelligence from research. A hierarchy of factors is used. g is at the top. Under it there are 10 broad abilities that in turn are subdivided into 70 narrow abilities. The broad abilities are:^[39]

• Fluid Intelligence (Gf): includes the broad ability to reason, form concepts, and solve problems using unfamiliar information or novel procedures.
• Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): includes the breadth and depth of a person's acquired knowledge, the ability to communicate one's knowledge, and the ability to reason using previously learned experiences or procedures.
• Quantitative Reasoning (Gq): the ability to comprehend quantitative concepts and relationships and to manipulate numerical symbols.
• Reading & Writing Ability (Grw): includes basic reading and writing skills.
• Short-Term Memory (Gsm): is the ability to apprehend and hold information in immediate awareness and then use it within a few seconds.
• Long-Term Storage and Retrieval (Glr): is the ability to store information and fluently retrieve it later in the process of thinking.
• Visual Processing (Gv): is the ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, and think with visual patterns, including the ability to store and recall visual representations.
• Auditory Processing (Ga): is the ability to analyze, synthesize, and discriminate auditory stimuli, including the ability to process and discriminate speech sounds that may be presented under distorted conditions.
• Processing Speed (Gs): is the ability to perform automatic cognitive tasks, particularly when measured under pressure to maintain focused attention.
• Decision/Reaction Time/Speed (Gt): reflect the immediacy with which an individual can react to stimuli or a task (typically measured in seconds or fractions of seconds; not to be confused with Gs, which typically is measured in intervals of 2–3 minutes). See Mental chronometry.

Modern tests do not necessarily measure of all of these broad abilities. For example, Gq and Grw may be seen as measures of school achievement and not IQ.^[39] Gt may be difficult to measure without special equipment.

g was earlier often subdivided into only Gf and Gc which were thought to correspond to the Nonverbal or Performance subtests and Verbal subtests in earlier versions of the popular Wechsler IQ test. More recent research has shown the situation to be more complex.^[39]

Controversies

While not necessarily a dispute about the psychometric approach itself, there are several controversies regarding the results from psychometric research. Examples are the role of genetics vs. environment, the causes of average group differences, or the Flynn effect.

One criticism has been against the early research such as craniometry.^[40] A reply has been that drawing conclusions from early intelligence research is like condemning the auto industry by criticizing the performance of the Model T.^[41]

Several critics, such as Stephen Jay Gould, have been critical of g, seeing it as a statistical artifact, and that IQ tests instead measure a number of unrelated abilities.^[40][42] The American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" stated that IQ tests do correlate and that the view that g is a statistical artifact is a minority one.

Other theories

There are critics of IQ, who do not dispute the stability of IQ test scores or the fact that they predict certain forms of achievement rather effectively. They do argue, however, that to base a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental ability.^[30]

On the other hand, Linda S. Gottfredson (2006) has argued that the results of thousands of studies support the importance of IQ for school and job performance (see also the work of Schmidt & Hunter, 2004). IQ also predicts or correlates with numerous other life outcomes. In contrast, empirical support for non-g intelligences is lacking or very poor. She argued that despite this the ideas of multiple non-g intelligences are very attractive to many because they suggest that everyone can be smart in some way.^[43]

Multiple intelligences

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Theory of multiple intelligences.

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences is based on studies not only of normal children and adults but also by studies of gifted individuals (including so-called "savants"), of persons who have suffered brain damage, of experts and virtuosos, and of individuals from diverse cultures. This led Gardner to break intelligence down into at least a number of different components. In the first edition of his book "Frames of Mind" (1983), he described seven distinct types of intelligence - logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. In a second edition of this book, he added two more types of intelligence - naturalist and existential intelligences. He argues that psychometric tests address only linguistic and logical plus some aspects of spatial intelligence.^[30] A major criticism of Gardner's theory is that it has never been tested, or subjected to peer review, by Gardner or anyone else, and indeed that it is unfalsifiable.^[44] Others (e.g. Locke, 2005) have suggested that recognizing many specific forms of intelligence (specific aptitude theory) implies a political—rather than scientific—agenda, intended to appreciate the uniqueness in all individuals, rather than recognizing potentially true and meaningful differences in individual capacities. Schmidt and Hunter (2004) suggest that the predictive validity of specific aptitudes over and above that of general mental ability, or "g", has not received empirical support.

Howard Gardner mentions in his Multiple Intelligences The Theory in Practice^[45] book, briefly about his main seven intelligences he introduced. In his book, he starts off describing Linguistic and Logical Intelligence because he believed that in society, we have put these two intelligences on a pedestal. However, Gardner believes all of the intelligences he found are equal. Note: At the time of the publication of Gardner's book Multiple Intelligences The Theory in Practice, naturalist and existential intelligences were not mentioned.

Linguistic Intelligence: People high in linguistic Intelligence have an affinity for words, both spoken and written.

Logical-Mathematics Intelligence: Is logical and mathematical ability, as well as scientific ability. Howard Gardner believed Jean Piaget may have thought he was studying all intelligence, but in truth, Piaget was really only focusing on the logical mathematical intelligence.

Spatial intelligence: The ability to form a mental model of a spatial world and to be able to maneuver and operate using that model.

Musical Intelligence: Those with musical Intelligence have excellent pitch, and may even be absolute pitch.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to solve problems or to fashion products using one's whole body, or parts of the body. For example, dancers, athletes, surgeons, craftspeople, etc.

Interpersonal intelligence: The ability to see things from the perspective of others, or to understand people in the sense of empathy. Strong interpersonal intelligence would be an asset in those who are teachers, politicians, clinicians, religious leaders, etc.

Intrapersonal intelligence: A correlative ability, turned inward. It is a capacity to form an accurate, veridical model of oneself and to be able to use that model to operate effectively in life.

Triarchic theory of intelligence

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Triarchic theory of intelligence.

Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence to provide a more comprehensive description of intellectual competence than traditional differential or cognitive theories of human ability.^[46] The triarchic theory describes three fundamental aspects of intelligence. Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed. Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge that is nearly, but not entirely, novel or when an individual is engaged in automatizing the performance of a task. Practical intelligence is bound in a sociocultural milieu and involves adaptation to, selection of, and shaping of the environment to maximize fit in the context. The triarchic theory does not argue against the validity of a general intelligence factor; instead, the theory posits that general intelligence is part of analytic intelligence, and only by considering all three aspects of intelligence can the full range of intellectual functioning be fully understood.

More recently, the triarchic theory has been updated and renamed the Theory of Successful Intelligence by Sternberg.^[47][48] Intelligence is defined as an individual's assessment of success in life by the individual's own (idiographic) standards and within the individual's sociocultural context. Success is achieved by using combinations of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. The three aspects of intelligence are referred to as processing skills. The processing skills are applied to the pursuit of success through what were the three elements of practical intelligence: adapting to, shaping of, and selecting of one's environments. The mechanisms that employ the processing skills to achieve success include utilizing one's strengths and compensating or correcting for one's weaknesses.

Sternberg's theories and research on intelligence remain contentious within the scientific community.^{[49][50][51][52]}

PASS Theory of Intelligence

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: PASS Theory of Intelligence.

Based on A. R. Luria’s (1966)^[53] seminal work on the modularization of brain function, and supported by decades of neuroimaging research, the PASS Theory of Intelligence^[54] proposes that cognition is organized in three systems and four processes. The first is the Planning, which involves executive functions responsible for controlling and organizing behavior, selecting and constructing strategies, and monitoring performance. The second is the Attention process, which is responsible for maintaining arousal levels and alertness, and ensuring focus on relevant stimuli. The next two are called Simultaneous and Successive processing and they involve encoding, transforming, and retaining information. Simultaneous processing is engaged when the relationship between items and their integration into whole units of information is required. Examples of this include recognizing figures, such as a triangle within a circle vs. a circle within a triangle, or the difference between ‘he had a shower before breakfast’ and ‘he had breakfast before a shower.’ Successive processing is required for organizing separate items in a sequence such as remembering a sequence of words or actions exactly in the order in which they had just been presented. These four processes are functions of four areas of the brain. Planning is broadly located in the front part of our brains, the frontal lobe. Attention and arousal are combined functions of the frontal lobe and the lower parts of the cortex, although the parietal lobes are also involved in attention as well. Simultaneous processing and Successive processing occur in the posterior region or the back of the brain. Simultaneous processing is broadly associated with the occipital and the parietal lobes while Successive processing is broadly associated with the frontal-temporal lobes. The PASS (Planning/Attention/Simultaneous/Successive) theory is heavily indebted to both Luria (1966,^[53] 1973^[55]), and studies in cognitive psychology involved in promoting a better look at intelligence.^[56]

Piaget's theory and Neo-Piagetian theories

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Piaget's theory of cognitive development e Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development.

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development the focus is not on mental abilities but rather on a child's mental models of the world. As a child develops, increasingly more accurate models of the world are developed which enable the child to interact with the world better. One example being object permanence where the child develops a model where objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.

Piaget's theory described four main stages and many sub-stages in the development. These four main stages are:

• sensory motor stage (birth-2yrs);
• pre-operational stage (2yrs-7rs);
• concrete operational stage (7rs-11yrs); and
• formal operations stage (11yrs-16yrs)^[57]

Degree of progress through these stages are correlated, but not identical with psychometric IQ.^[58][59] Piaget conceptualizes intelligence as an activity more than a capacity.

One of Piaget's most famous studies focused purely on the discriminative abilities of children between the ages of two and a half years old, and four and a half years old. He began the study by taking children of different ages and placing two lines of sweets, one with the sweets in a line spread further apart, and one with the same number of sweets in a line placed more closely together. He found that, "Children between 2 years, 6 months old and 3 years, 2 months old correctly discriminate the relative number of objects in two rows; between 3 years, 2 months and 4 years, 6 months they indicate a longer row with fewer objects to have "more"; after 4 years, 6 months they again discriminate correctly".^[60] Initially younger children were not studied, because if at four years old a child could not conserve quantity, then a younger child presumably could not either. The results show however that children that are younger than three years and two months have quantity conservation, but as they get older they lose this quality, and do not recover it until four and a half years old. This attribute may be lost temporarily because of an overdependence on perceptual strategies, which correlates more candy with a longer line of candy, or because of the inability for a four-year-old to reverse situations.^[57] By the end of this experiment several results were found. First, younger children have a discriminative ability that shows the logical capacity for cognitive operations exists earlier than acknowledged. This study also reveals that young children can be equipped with certain qualities for cognitive operations, depending on how logical the structure of the task is. Research also shows that children develop explicit understanding at age 5 and as a result, the child will count the sweets to decide which has more. Finally the study found that overall quantity conservation is not a basic characteristic of humans' native inheritance.^[57]

Piaget's theory has been criticized for the age of appearance of a new model of the world, such as object permanence, being dependent on how the testing is done (see the article on object permanence). More generally, the theory may be very difficult to test empirically because of the difficulty of proving or disproving that a mental model is the explanation for the results of the testing.^[61]

Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development expand Piaget's theory in various ways such as also considering psychometric-like factors such as processing speed and working memory, "hypercognitive" factors like self-monitoring, more stages, and more consideration on how progress may vary in different domains such as spatial or social.^[62][63]

Latent inhibition

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Latent inhibition.

Latent inhibition has been related to elements of intelligence, namely creativity and genius.

Evolution of intelligence

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Evolution of human intelligence.

The ancestors of modern humans evolved large and complex brains exhibiting an ever-increasing intelligence through a long evolutionary process (see Homininae). Different explanations have been proposed.

Improving intelligence

Eugenics is a social philosophy which advocates the improvement of human hereditary traits through various forms of intervention.^[64] Conscious efforts to influence intelligence raise ethical issues. Eugenics has variously been regarded as meritorious or deplorable in different periods of history, falling greatly into disrepute after the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II.^{[senza fonte]}

Neuroethics considers the ethical, legal and social implications of neuroscience, and deals with issues such as the difference between treating a human neurological disease and enhancing the human brain, and how wealth impacts access to neurotechnology. Neuroethical issues interact with the ethics of human genetic engineering.

Because intelligence appears to be at least partly dependent on brain structure and the genes shaping brain development, it has been proposed that genetic engineering could be used to enhance the intelligence, a process sometimes called biological uplift in science fiction. Experiments on mice have demonstrated superior ability in learning and memory in various behavioral tasks.^[65]

IQ leads to greater success in education,^[66] but independently education raises IQ scores.^[67] Attempts to raise IQ with brain training have led to increases on the training tasks – for instance working memory – but it is as yet unclear if these generalise to increased intelligence per se.^[68]

Transhumanist theorists study the possibilities and consequences of developing and using techniques to enhance human abilities and aptitudes, and individuals ameliorating what they regard as undesirable and unnecessary aspects of the human condition.

Substances which actually or purportedly improve intelligence or other mental functions are called nootropics.

A 2008 research paper claimed that practicing a dual n-back task can increase fluid intelligence (Gf), as measured in several different standard tests.^[69] This finding received some attention from popular media, including an article in Wired.^[70] However, a subsequent criticism of the paper's methodology questioned the experiment's validity and took issue with the lack of uniformity in the tests used to evaluate the control and test groups.^[71] For example, the progressive nature of Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) test may have been compromised by modifications of time restrictions (i.e., 10 minutes were allowed to complete a normally 45-minute test).

Correlates

According to Rosemary Hopcroft, a sociologist at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, intelligence is inversely linked with sexual frequency (people with higher levels of education often report lower numbers of sexual partners).^[72] In parallel, self-reported intelligence has been linked to unconventional sexual practices and frequent sexual activity, thoughts and fantasies.^[73]

Some studies have shown a direct link between an increased birth weight and an increased intelligence quotient.^[74][75][76]

Comparazioni con la neurobiologia

Il sistema sensoriale e di risposta di una pianta è stato comparato con i processi neurobiologici degli Animali. La neurobiologia delle piante riguarda soprattutto il comportamento adattativo sensoriale dell'elettrofisiologia di piante e vegetali. Lo scienziato indiano J. C. Bose è accreditato come la prima persona ad aver parlato di neurobiologia delle piante. Molti scienziati dei vegetali e neuroscienziati, tuttavia, ritengono che questo termine sia inesatto, in quanto le piante non hanno neuroni.^[77]

Le idee dietro la neurobiologia vegetale sono state criticate in un articolo del 2007^[77] pubblicato in Trends in Plant Science da Amedeo Alpi e 35 altri scienziati, comprendenti eminenti biologi delle piante come Gerd Jürgens, Ben Scheres, e Chris Sommerville. L'ampiezza dei campi della scienza delle piante rappresentata da questi ricercatori riflette il fatto che la stragrande maggioranza della comunità scientifica di ricerca sulle piante rifiuta la neurobiologia vegetale. I loro argomenti principali sono^[77]:

• "La neurobiologia vegetale non aggiunge nulla alla nostra comprensione della fisiologia vegetale, della biologia cellulare vegetale o della segnalazione".
• "Nelle piante non c'è evidenza di strutture assimilabili a neuroni, sinapsi o cervelli".
• Il verificarsi comune di plasmodesmata nelle piante, che "pone un problema per la segnalazione da un punto di vista elettrofisiologico" dato l'ampio accoppiamento elettrico precluderebbe la necessità di qualsiasi trasporto cellula-cellula di composti simili a neurotrasmettitori.

Se il concetto di "neurobiologia delle piante" è a beneficio della comunità di ricerca gli autori chiedono la fine di "analogie superficiali e estrapolazioni discutibili".^[77]

Ci sono state diverse risposte alla critica per chiarire che il termine "neurobiologia vegetale" è una metafora e che le metafore si sono rivelate utili in diverse occasioni.^[78][79]

Attualmente non vi sono definizioni accademiche, ovvero prodotte dalla comunità dei ricercatori, di intelligenza che godano dell'accordo universale della comunità scientifica stessa. Tra i molti enunciati proposti si segnala quello riportato in una dichiarazione editoriale del 1994 firmata da cinquantadue ricercatori, Mainstream Science on Intelligence:

L'intelligenza è l'insieme di tutte le funzioni psichiche/mentali che permettono ad un soggetto (individuo o animale) di capire cose ed eventi, scoprendo le relazioni che intercorrono tra di essi ed arrivando ad una conoscenza concettuale e razionale (ovvero non percettiva o intuitiva). Essa si percepisce nella capacità di comprendere, adattarsi e fronteggiare con successo nuove situazioni e può dunque essere concepita come una capacità di adattamento all'ambiente.

In particolare, l'intelligenza permette di rilevare o cogliere relazioni problematiche, contrasti e di risolvere autonomamente i problemi nuovi (effettivi, potenziali); comporta inoltre la capacità di prevedere e scongiurare il verificarsi di situazioni future negative, o di evitarlo (non necessariamente in maniera conscia), per merito delle proprie elaborazioni di informazioni, ricordi e/o dati percettivi, invece che unicamente per merito di un richiamo/riapplicazione automatico/a di informazioni o comportamenti pregressi.

L'Uomo è dotato di intelligenza concettuale: la comprensione per Homo Sapiens passa attraverso l'uso dei concetti, ovvero di parole a cui associare dei significati. La capacità di linguaggio è dunque un aspetto fondamentale dell'intelligenza umana, che permette tra l'altro il ragionamento complesso e astratto.^[80]

Comportamenti assimilabili a quelli indotti dall'intelligenza animale sono riscontrabili anche nelle piante, mentre i settori di ricerca legati al campo dell'intelligenza artificiale tentano di creare delle macchine in grado di riprodurre tali comportamenti.

La varietà dei comportamenti umani e animali cosiddetti "intelligenti" è estremamente ampia; ciò rende problematico il raggiungimento di una definizione accademica di intelligenza che risulti sintetica, onnicomprensiva e al contempo universalmente condivisa. Si riscontra pertanto all'interno della comunità scientifica degli psicologi una diversità di definizioni, ciascuna delle quali risente dell'orientamento di pensiero di chi l'ha formulata.

La varietà dei comportamenti umani e animali "intelligenti" è estremamente ampia; ciò, rende problematico il raggiungimento di una definizione accademica di intelligenza che risulti al contempo sintetica, onnicomprensiva e universalmente condivisa. Si riscontrano pertanto all'interno della comunità scientifica degli psicologi definizioni diverse, ciascuna delle quali risentente dell'orientamento di pensiero di chi l'ha formulata.

La varietà dei comportamenti umani e animali "intelligenti" è estremamente ampia; ciò, rende problematico il raggiungimento di una definizione accademica di intelligenza che possa essere sintetica, onnicomprensiva e al contempo universalmente condivisa. All'interno della comunità scientifica degli psicologi vi è pertanto una pluralità di definizioni.

La definizione di intelligenza è in realtà controversa: la varietà delle manifestazioni comportamentali umane e animali ad essa associabili è difatti estremamente ampia, rendendo problematico il raggiungimento di una definizione di intelligenza che risulti sintetica, completa, universalmente condivisa dalla comunità scientifica in primo luogo.

Le definizioni date sono pertanto plurime, dipendenti dall'orientamento di pensiero di chi le ha formulate. Tra le più importanti si segnala quella fornita in una dichiarazione editoriale del 1994, Mainstream Science on Intelligence, firmato da cinquantadue ricercatori:

Una definizione di intelligenza dotata delle qualità di sintesi, completezza e condivisione universale da parte della comunità scientifica è in verità ancora lontana dall'essere raggiungibile: la varietà delle manifestazioni comportamentali umane e animali associabili all'intelligenza è infatti estremamente ampia, dando adito, piuttosto, ad una pluralità di definizioni anche in seno accademico.

Tra i molti enunciati forniti, si segnala per importanza quello pubblicato su Mainstream Science on Intelligence, una dichiarazione editoriale del 1994 firmata da cinquantadue ricercatori:

Con il termine intelligenza si fa riferimento all'insieme di tutte le funzioni psichiche/mentali che permettono ad un soggetto (individuo o animale) di capire cose ed eventi, scoprendo le relazioni che intercorrono tra di essi ed arrivando ad una conoscenza concettuale e razionale (ovvero non percettiva o intuitiva). Essa si percepisce nella capacità di comprendere, adattarsi e fronteggiare con successo nuove situazioni e può dunque essere concepita come una capacità di adattamento all'ambiente. L'intelligenza permette in particolare di rilevare o cogliere relazioni problematiche e contrasti, di identificare i problemi nuovi, di risolverli autonomamente, e di risolverli nel modo più appropriato alle situazioni in cui sono immersi. Comporta inoltre la capacità del soggetto di prevedere e scongiurare, o di evitare (non necessariamente in maniera conscia), il verificarsi di situazioni future negative per merito delle proprie elaborazioni di informazioni, ricordi e/o dati percettivi (ovvero, non unicamente per merito di un/una richiamo/riapplicazione automatico/a di informazioni o comportamenti pregressi).

Comportamenti assimilabili a quelli indotti dall'intelligenza animale sono riscontrabili anche nelle piante, mentre i settori di ricerca legati al campo dell'intelligenza artificiale tentano di creare delle macchine in grado di produrre anch'esse comportamenti intelligenti.

== Etimologia ==
La parola intelligenza deriva dal sostantivo latino intelligenzĭa, a sua volta derivante dal verbo intelligĕre, "capire". La genesi di intelligĕre è incerta: secondo alcuni, sarebbe una contrazione del verbo legĕre (= "scegliere", "leggere") con l'avverbio intus (= "dentro"), mentre secondo altri lo sarebbe con l'avverbio inter (= "tra"). Nel primo caso, il termine latino significherebbe "leggere-dentro", suggerendo una capacità di "leggere oltre la superficie", di comprendere davvero, comprendere le reali intenzioni. Nel secondo, intelligĕre starebbe per "leggere-tra", suggerendo forse una capacità di "leggere tra le righe", di stabilire delle correlazioni tra elementi.

== Definizioni accademiche ==
La comunità scientifica non ha ad oggi raggiunto un accordo universale su una definizione universitaria unica e condivisa di intelligenza. Tra le molte definizioni proposte dai ricercatori si segnala quella riportata su Mainstream Science on Intelligence, una dichiarazione editoriale del 1994 firmata da cinquantadue di essi:

(inglese)

«A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.^[81]»

(italiano)
«[Dicesi intelligenza] Una generale funzione mentale che, tra l'altro, comporta la capacità di ragionare, pianificare, risolvere problemi, pensare in maniera astratta, comprendere idee complesse, apprendere rapidamente e apprendere dall'esperienza. Non riguarda solo l'apprendimento dai libri, un'abilità accademica limitata, o l'astuzia nei test. Piuttosto, riflette una capacità più ampia e profonda di capire ciò che ci circonda – "afferrare" le cose, attribuirgli un significato, o "scoprire" il da farsi.»

(Da Mainstream Science on Intelligence, 1994)

Altre definizioni date sono: "la capacità o disposizione ad utilizzare in modo adeguato allo scopo tutti gli elementi del pensiero necessari per riconoscere, impostare e risolvere nuovi problemi" (William L. Stern)^[82]; "la capacità generale di adattare il proprio pensiero e condotta di fronte a condizioni e situazioni nuove" (Daniel N. Stern)^[83]; "... l'anticipazione utile [...] si misura a posteriori dal grado di soddisfazione raggiunto dal soggetto".

  Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Intelligenza (disambigua).

L'intelligenza è l'insieme di tutte le funzioni psichiche/mentali che permettono ad un soggetto (individuo o animale) di capire cose ed eventi, scoprendo le relazioni che intercorrono tra di essi ed arrivando ad una conoscenza concettuale e razionale (ovvero non percettiva o intuitiva). Essa si percepisce nella capacità di comprendere, adattarsi e fronteggiare con successo nuove situazioni e può dunque essere concepita come una capacità di adattamento all'ambiente. In particolare, l'intelligenza permette di rilevare o cogliere relazioni problematiche e contrasti, di identificare i problemi nuovi, di risolverli autonomamente e di risolverli nel modo più appropriato alle situazioni in cui sono immersi; da essa consegue inoltre la capacità di un soggetto di prevedere e scongiurare, o evitare (non necessariamente in maniera conscia), il verificarsi di situazioni future negative, per merito delle proprie elaborazioni di informazioni, ricordi e/o dati percettivi (ovvero, non unicamente per merito di un/una richiamo/riapplicazione automatico/a di informazioni o comportamenti pregressi).

Le piante presentano comportamenti che sono assimilabili a quelli indotti dall'intelligenza animale; i settori di ricerca legati al campo dell'intelligenza artificiale tentano di creare delle macchine in grado di produrre anch'esse comportamenti intelligenti.

1. ^ Rutkoff, Aaron. "Garden State Tolkien: Q&A With George R.R. Martin", The Wall Street Journal, July 8, 2011. Retrieved July 11, 2011. "Mr. Martin, 62 years old, says that he grew up in a federal housing project in Bayonne, which is situated on a peninsula.... My four years at Marist High School were not the happiest of my life,” the author admits, although his growing enthusiasm for writing comics and superhero stories first emerged during this period."
2. ^   Dent, Grace (interviewer); Martin, George R. R., Game Of Thrones – Interview with George R.R. Martin, YouTube, , 12 giugno 2012.
3. ^ George Stroumboulopoulos Tonight, interview with Martin, CBC.ca, March 14, 2012. URL consultato il March 15, 2012.,
4. ^ With Morning Comes Mistfall, su thehugoawards.org, Hugo Awards. URL consultato il May 22, 2012.
5. ^ The Locus Index to SF Awards. Retrieved Aug 14, 2012
6. ^ Turtledove, Harry, ed., with Martin H. Greenberg. The Best Military Science Fiction of the 20th Century. New York: Ballantine, May 2001, p. 279–306.
7. ^ Berwick, Isabel, Lunch with the FT: George RR Martin, in Financial Times, 1º giugno 2012. URL consultato il June 1, 2012.
8. ^ {{{title}}}, su imdb.com.
9. ^ Kerr, John Finlay. 2009. Second person: Role-playing and story in games and playable media, edited by Pat Harrigan and Noah Wardrip-Fruin [book review]. Transformative Works and Cultures, no. 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.3983/twc.2009.0095.
10. ^ Peter Sagal, 'Thrones' Author George R.R. Martin Plays Not My Job, su npr.org, NPR, September 15, 2012. URL consultato il September 16, 2012.
11. ^ http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472068968-17.pdf
12. ^ http://georgerrmartin.com/appearances.html
13. ^ http://www.goodreads.com/author/show/346732.George_R_R_Martin/blog
14. ^ Laura Miller, Onward and Upward with the Arts: Just Write It!: A fantasy author and his impatient fans., in The New Yorker, April 11, 2011. URL consultato il 12 febbraio 2012.
15. ^ Guy Gavriel Kay, Restless readers go bonkers, in Globe and Mail, April 10, 2009. URL consultato il 13 maggio 2010.
16. ^ Alison Flood, Excitement as George RR Martin announces he's 1,200 pages into new book, in The Guardian, February 16, 2010. URL consultato il 13 maggio 2010.
17. ^ George R R Martin, Frequently Asked Questions - George R. R. Martin's Official Website, su georgerrmartin.com. URL consultato il January 16, 2013.
18. ^ George R R Martin, Not A Blog - Someone Is Angry On the Internet, su grrm.livejournal.com, LiveJournal, May 7, 2010. URL consultato il January 16, 2013.
19. ^ In Love With Lisa, in Life & Times, George R.R. Martin Official Website. URL consultato l'8 luglio 2012.
20. ^ and special events ://grrm.livejournal.com/321014.html
21. ^ http://www.santafenewmexican.com/news/local_news/article_11f41778-724e-5d42-9fbe-40e5b56ae400.html
22. ^ Big, Big, BIG News, in Not A Blog, LiveJournal, 17. URL consultato il July 8, 2012.
23. ^ http://www.paulcornell.com/2011/09/worldcon-love-story.html
24. ^ http://grrm.livejournal.com/287215.html
25. ^ http://grrm.livejournal.com/tag/wolves
26. ^ http://grrm.livejournal.com/282994.html
27. ^ http://grrm.livejournal.com/284608.html
28. ^ http://shelf-life.ew.com/2011/07/12/george-martin-talks-a-dance-with-dragons/
29. ^ S.E. Embretson & S.P.Reise: Item response theory for psychologists, 2000. "...for many other psychological tests, normal distributions are achieved by normalizing procedures. For example, intelligence tests..." Found on: books.google.se
30. Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore APA1995
31. ^ Ritter, N., Kilinc, E., Navruz, B., Bae, Y. (2011). Test Review: Test of Nonverbal Intelligence-4 (TONI-4). Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 29(5), 384-388. doi: 10.1177/0734282911400400
32. ^ Geary, David M., The Origin of the Mind: Evolution of Brain, Cognition, and General Intelligence, American Psychological Association (APA), 2004, ISBN 1-59147-181-8.
33. ^ Ree, M.J., Intelligence Is the Best Predictor of Job Performance, in Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 1, n. 3, 1992, pp. 86–89, DOI:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10768746.
34. ^ Delen, E., Kaya, F., and Ritter, N. (2012). Test review: Test of Comprehensive Nonverbal Intelligence-2 (CTONI-2). Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 30(2) 209-213. doi: 10.1177/0734282911415614
35. ^ H. L. J. van der Maas, Dolan, C. V.; Grasman, R. P. P. P.; Wicherts, J. M.; Huizenga, H. M.; Raijmakers, M. E. J., A dynamical model of general intelligence: The positive manifold of intelligence by mutualism, in Psychological Review, vol. 113, n. 4, 2006, pp. 842–861, DOI:10.1037/0033-295X.113.4.842.
36. ^ B. Marshalek, Lohman, D. F. Snow, R. E., The complexity continuum in the radex and hierarchical models of intelligence, in Intelligence, vol. 7, n. 2, 1983, pp. 107–127, DOI:10.1016/0160-2896(83)90023-5.
37. ^ R. Lynnn, Irving, P., Sex differences on the progressive matrices: A meta-analysis, in Intelligence, vol. 32, n. 5, 2004, pp. 481–498, DOI:10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.008.
38. ^ D. F. Halpern, LaMay, M. L., The smarter sex: A critical review of sex differences in intelligence, in Educational Psychology Review, vol. 12, n. 2, 2000, pp. 229–246, DOI:10.1023/A:1009027516424.
39. IQ Testing 101, Alan S. Kaufman, 2009, Springer Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-8261-0629-2
40. The Mismeasure of Man, Stephen Jay Gould, Norton, 1996
41. ^ Jensen, A.R., The debunking of scientific fossils and straw persons, in Contemporary Education Review, vol. 1, n. 2, 1942, pp. 121–135. URL consultato il 18 marzo 2008.
42. ^ Schlinger, H.D., The Myth of Intelligence, in The Psychological Record, vol. 53, n. 1, 2003, pp. 15–33. URL consultato il 18 marzo 2008.
43. ^ Gottfredson, L. S. (2006). Social consequences of group differences in cognitive ability (Consequencias sociais das diferencas de grupo em habilidade cognitiva). In C. E. Flores-Mendoza & R. Colom (Eds.), Introducau a psicologia das diferencas individuais (pp. 433-456). Porto Allegre, Brazil: ArtMed Publishers.
44. ^ [1]^{[collegamento interrotto]}
45. ^ Multiple Intelligence: The theory in practice, New York, Basic Books, 1993, ISBN 046501822^{ISBN non valido (aiuto)}.
46. ^ Sternberg, R.J., Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1985, ISBN 0-521-26254-2.
47. ^ Sternberg, R.J., The theory of successful intelligence, in Review of General Psychology, vol. 3, n. 4, 1978, pp. 292–316, DOI:10.1037/1089-2680.3.4.292.
48. ^ Sternberg, R.J., A broad view of intelligence: The theory of successful intelligence, in Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice & Research, vol. 55, n. 3, 2003, pp. 139–154, DOI:10.1037/1061-4087.55.3.139.
49. ^ Brody, N., Construct validation of the Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test: Comment and reanalysis, in Intelligence, vol. 31, n. 4, 2003, pp. 319–329, DOI:10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00087-3.
50. ^ Brody, N., What Sternberg should have concluded, in Intelligence, vol. 31, n. 4, 2003, pp. 339–342, DOI:10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00190-3.
51. ^ Gottfredson, L.S., Dissecting practical intelligence theory: Its claims and evidence, in Intelligence, vol. 31, n. 4, 2003, pp. 343–397, DOI:10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00085-5.
52. ^ Gottfredson, L.S., On Sternberg's 'Reply to Gottfredson[[:Template:'-]], in Intelligence, vol. 31, n. 4, 2003, pp. 415–424, DOI:10.1016/S0160-2896(03)00024-2. Wikilink compreso nell'URL del titolo (aiuto)
53. Luria, A. R. (1966). Higher cortical functions in man. New York: Basic Books.
54. ^ Das, J. P., Naglieri, J. A., & Kirby, J. R. (1994). Assessment of cognitive processes. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
55. ^ Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain: An introduction to neuropsychology. New York.
56. ^ Das,J.P.(2002) A Better look at Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychology, 11(1), 28-32.
57. Piaget, J. (2001). Psychology of intelligence. Routledge.
58. ^ Elkind, D., & Flavell, J. (1969). Studies in cognitive development: Essays in honor of Jean Piaget. New York: Oxford University Press
59. ^ Intelligence and IQ, Landmark Issues and Great Debates, Richard A. Weinberg AmericanVol. 44, No. 2, 98-104
60. ^ Piaget, J. (1953). The origin of intelligence in the child. New Fetter Lane, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
61. ^ DOI: 10.1007/BF00592203
62. ^ Demetriou, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K.F.M. van Lieshout (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology (pp. 179-269). London: Wiley.
63. ^ Demetriou, A., Mouyi, A., & Spanoudis, G. (2010). The development of mental processing. Nesselroade, J.R. (2011). Methods in the study of life-span human development: Issues and answers. In W.F. Overton (Ed.), Biology, cognition and methods across the life-span. Volume 1 of the Handbook of life-span development (pp. 36-35), Editor-in-chief: R.M. Lerner. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
64. ^ Osborn, F., Development of a Eugenic Philosophy, in American Sociological Review, vol. 2, n. 3, 1937, pp. 389–397, DOI:10.2307/2084871.
65. ^ Tang YP, Shimizu E, Dube GR, et al., Genetic enhancement of learning and memory in mice, in Nature, vol. 401, n. 6748, 1999, pp. 63–9, DOI:10.1038/43432.
66. ^ W. Johnson, C. E. Brett and I. J. Deary. (2010). The pivotal role of education in the association between ability and social class attainment: A look across three generations. Intelligence, 38, 55-65
67. ^ C. N. Brinch and T. A. Galloway. (2012). Schooling in adolescence raises IQ scores. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 109, 425-30
68. ^ Zach, Does Working Memory Training Generalize?, in Psychologica Belgica, vol. 50, 3–4, 2010, pp. 245–276.
69. ^ Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., Perrig, W. J. (2008), Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 105 no. 19
70. ^ Alexis Madrigal, Forget Brain Age: Researchers Develop Software That Makes You Smarter, Wired, April 2008
71. ^ Moody, D. E. (2009), Can intelligence be increased by training on a task of working memory? Intelligence, Volume 37, Issue 4, July–August 2009, Pages 327-328, DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2009.04.005
72. ^ Friedman, L.F. (2011, July).Intellegent Intercourse. Psychology Today. 44, 41.
73. ^ Mark Thompson, 3, in Who Should You Have Sex With, Sourcebooks Casablanca, 1, p. 78, ISBN 978-1402242045.
    
    «In my studies, men and women who described themselves as smart, intelligent, logical and imaginative reported thinking about sex more often, fantasizing about sex, and having sex more often than people who did not see themselves as smart or intellectual. They also usually had a wider scope of sexual experiences, including experience with role-playing and other Kinky activities.»
74. ^ Matte TD, Bresnahan M, Begg MD, Susser E, Influence of variation in birth weight within normal range and within sibships on IQ at age 7 years: cohort study, in BMJ, vol. 323, n. 7308, August 2001, pp. 310–4, DOI:10.1136/bmj.323.7308.310.
75. ^ The Future of Children - Sub-Sections, su futureofchildren.org. URL consultato il 28 novembre 2007 (archiviato dall'url originale il 22 ottobre 2007).
76. ^ HEALTH | Intelligence linked to birthweight, in BBC News, 9 agosto 2001. URL consultato il 28 novembre 2007.
77. Plant neurobiology: no brain, no gain? Alpi A, Amrhein N, Bertl A, Blatt MR, Blumwald E, Cervone F, Dainty J, De Michelis MI, Epstein E, Galston AW, Goldsmith MH, Hawes C, Hell R, Hetherington A, Hofte H, Juergens G, Leaver CJ, Moroni A, Murphy A, Oparka K, Perata P, Quader H, Rausch T, Ritzenthaler C, Rivetta A, Robinson DG, Sanders D, Scheres B, Schumacher K, Sentenac H, Slayman CL, Soave C, Somerville C, Taiz L, Thiel G, Wagner R. (2007). Trends Plant Sci. Apr;12(4):135-6. PMID 17368081
78. ^ PMID 17499006
79. ^ PMID 17591455
80. ^ Sorgenti: ↑  : Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Alpha, dictionnaires Larousse et Robert. Pour le raisonnement, dictionnaire en ligne TLFI ↑ Prolégomènes, tome II, page 323 http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Ibn_Khaldoun/Prolegomenes_t2/ibn_pro_II.pdf [archive] ↑ Jean Piaget, La Construction du Réel, 1936 ↑ A formal definition of intelligence based on an intensional variant of Kolmogorov complexity, Jose Hernandez-orallo, Proceedings of the International Symposium of Engineering of Intelligent Systems (EIS'98). ↑ Marcus Hutter, « A Theory of Universal Artificial Intelligence based on Algorithmic Complexity », dans cs/0004001, 2000-04-03 [texte intégral [archive] (page consultée le 2010-03-11)] ↑ (en) Marcus Hutter, Universal Artificial Intelligence: Sequential Decisions Based On Algorithmic Probability, Berlin, SpringerVerlag, 2005 (ISBN 978-3-540-22139-5) (LCCN 2004112980) [lire en ligne [archive] (page consultée le 2010-04-30)] ↑ R. J Solomonoff, « A Formal Theory of Inductive Inference. Part I », dans Information and Control, vol. 7, no 1, 1964, p. 1-22 ↑ J. Veness, « A Monte Carlo AIXI Approximation », dans Arxiv preprint arXiv:0909.0801, 2009 ↑ a et b Aljoscha Neubauer, Les mille facettes de l'intelligence, Pour la Science, Cerveau & psycho, n°1, page 49.
81. ^ Gottfredson, L.S., Foreword to "intelligence and social policy", in Intelligence,, volume 24, fascicolo 1, 1997, pp. pagine 1–12, DOI:10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90010-6. URL consultato il 18 marzo 2008. Parametro sconosciuto format ignorato (aiuto)
82. ^ http://www.psicolife.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=188:intelligenza&catid=10009:saggie-e-articoli&Itemid=226
83. ^ http://www.opsonline.it/printable-16916-intelligenza.html