Wikipedia

Domain name

(Redirected from Internet ___domain)
This article is about ___domain names in the Internet. For other uses, see Domain (disambiguation).

In the Internet, a ___domain name is a string that identifies a realm of administrative autonomy, authority, or control. Domain names are often used to identify services provided through the Internet, such as websites, email services, and more. Domain names are used in various networking contexts and for application-specific naming and addressing purposes. In general, a ___domain name identifies a network ___domain or an Internet Protocol (IP) resource, such as a personal computer used to access the Internet, or a server computer.

An annotated example of a ___domain name

Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name System (DNS). Any name registered in the DNS is a ___domain name. Domain names are organized in subordinate levels (subdomains) of the DNS root ___domain, which is nameless. The first-level set of ___domain names are the top-level domains (TLDs), including the generic top-level domains (gTLDs), such as the prominent domains com, info, net, edu, and org, and the country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). Below these top-level domains in the DNS hierarchy are the second-level and third-level ___domain names that are typically open for reservation by end-users who wish to connect local area networks to the Internet, create other publicly accessible Internet resources or run websites, such as "wikipedia.org". The registration of a second- or third-level ___domain name is usually administered by a ___domain name registrar who sell its services to the public.

A fully qualified ___domain name (FQDN) is a ___domain name that is completely specified with all labels in the hierarchy of the DNS, having no parts omitted. Traditionally a FQDN ends in a dot (.) to denote the top of the DNS tree.[1] Labels in the Domain Name System are case-insensitive, and may therefore be written in any desired capitalization method, but most commonly ___domain names are written in lowercase in technical contexts.[2]: §6  A hostname is a ___domain name that has at least one associated IP address.

Purpose

Domain names serve to identify Internet resources, such as computers, networks, and services, with a text-based label that is easier to memorize than the numerical addresses used in the Internet protocols. A ___domain name may represent entire collections of such resources or individual instances. Individual Internet host computers use ___domain names as host identifiers, also called hostnames. The term hostname is also used for the leaf labels in the ___domain name system, usually without further subordinate ___domain name space. Hostnames appear as a component in Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) for Internet resources such as websites (e.g., en.wikipedia.org).

Domain names are also used as simple identification labels to indicate ownership or control of a resource. Such examples are the realm identifiers used in the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), the Domain Keys used to verify DNS domains in e-mail systems, and in many other Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs).

An important function of ___domain names is to provide easily recognizable and memorizable names to numerically addressed Internet resources. This abstraction allows any resource to be moved to a different physical ___location in the address topology of the network, globally or locally in an intranet. Such a move usually requires changing the IP address of a resource and the corresponding translation of this IP address to and from its ___domain name.

Domain names are used to establish a unique identity. Organizations can choose a ___domain name that corresponds to their name, helping Internet users to reach them easily.

A generic ___domain is a name that defines a general category, rather than a specific or personal instance, for example, the name of an industry, rather than a company name. Some examples of generic names are books.com, music.com, and travel.info. Companies have created brands based on generic names, and such generic ___domain names may be valuable.[3]

Domain names are often simply referred to as domains and ___domain name registrants are frequently referred to as ___domain owners, although ___domain name registration with a registrar does not confer any legal ownership of the ___domain name, only an exclusive right of use for a particular duration of time. The use of ___domain names in commerce may subject them to trademark law.

History

Main article: List of the oldest currently registered Internet ___domain names

The practice of using a simple memorable abstraction of a host's numerical address on a computer network dates back to the ARPANET era, before the advent of today's commercial Internet. In the early network, each computer on the network retrieved the hosts file (host.txt) from a computer at SRI (now SRI International),[4][5] which mapped computer hostnames to numerical addresses. The rapid growth of the network made it impossible to maintain a centrally organized hostname registry and in 1983 the Domain Name System was introduced on the ARPANET and published by the Internet Engineering Task Force as RFC 882[6] and RFC 883.[7]

The following table shows the first five .com domains with the dates of their registration:[8]

Domain name Registration date
symbolics.com 15 March 1985
bbn.com 24 April 1985
think.com 24 May 1985
mcc.com 11 July 1985
dec.com 30 September 1985

and the first five .edu domains:[9]

Domain name Registration date
berkeley.edu 24 April 1985
cmu.edu 24 April 1985
purdue.edu 24 April 1985
rice.edu 24 April 1985
ucla.edu 24 April 1985

Domain name space

 
The hierarchical ___domain name system, organized into zones, each served by ___domain name servers

Today, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) manages the top-level development and architecture of the Internet ___domain name space. It authorizes ___domain name registrars, through which ___domain names may be registered and reassigned.

 
The hierarchy of labels in a fully qualified ___domain name

The ___domain name space consists of a tree of ___domain names. Each node in the tree holds information associated with the ___domain name. The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the DNS root zone.

Domain name syntax

A ___domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.

  • The right-most label conveys the top-level ___domain; for example, the ___domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level ___domain com.
  • The hierarchy of domains descends from the right to the left label in the name; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the ___domain to the right. For example: the label example specifies a node example.com as a subdomain of the com ___domain, and www is a label to create www.example.com, a subdomain of example.com. Each label may contain from 1 to 63 octets. The empty label is reserved for the root node and when fully qualified is expressed as the empty label terminated by a dot. The full ___domain name may not exceed a total length of 253 ASCII characters in its textual representation.[10]
  • A hostname is a ___domain name that has at least one associated IP address. For example, the ___domain names www.example.com and example.com are also hostnames, whereas the com ___domain is not. However, other top-level domains, particularly country code top-level domains, may indeed have an IP address, and if so, they are also hostnames.
  • Hostnames impose restrictions on the characters allowed in the corresponding ___domain name. A valid hostname is also a valid ___domain name, but a valid ___domain name may not necessarily be valid as a hostname.

Top-level domains

When the Domain Name System was devised in the 1980s, the ___domain name space was divided into two main groups of domains.[11] The country code top-level domains (ccTLD) were primarily based on the two-character territory codes of ISO-3166 country abbreviations. In addition, a group of seven generic top-level domains (gTLD) was implemented which represented a set of categories of names and multi-organizations.[12] These were the domains gov, edu, com, mil, org, net, and int. These two types of top-level domains (TLDs) are the highest level of ___domain names of the Internet. Top-level domains form the DNS root zone of the hierarchical Domain Name System. Every ___domain name ends with a top-level ___domain label.

During the growth of the Internet, it became desirable to create additional generic top-level domains. As of October 2009, 21 generic top-level domains and 250 two-letter country-code top-level domains existed.[13] In addition, the ARPA ___domain serves technical purposes in the infrastructure of the Domain Name System.

During the 32nd International Public ICANN Meeting in Paris in 2008,[14] ICANN started a new process of TLD naming policy to take a "significant step forward on the introduction of new generic top-level domains." This program envisions the availability of many new or already proposed domains, as well as a new application and implementation process.[15] Observers believed that the new rules could result in hundreds of new top-level domains to be registered.[16] In 2012, the program commenced, and received 1930 applications.[17] By 2016, the milestone of 1000 live gTLD was reached.

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) maintains an annotated list of top-level domains in the DNS root zone database.[18]

For special purposes, such as network testing, documentation, and other applications, IANA also reserves a set of special-use ___domain names.[19] This list contains ___domain names such as example, local, localhost, and test. Other top-level ___domain names containing trade marks are registered for corporate use. Cases include brands such as BMW, Google, and Canon.[20]

Second-level and lower level domains

Below the top-level domains in the ___domain name hierarchy are the second-level ___domain (SLD) names. These are the names directly to the left of .com, .net, and the other top-level domains. As an example, in the ___domain example.co.uk, co is the second-level ___domain.

Next are third-level domains, which are written immediately to the left of a second-level ___domain. There can be fourth- and fifth-level domains, and so on, with virtually no limitation. Each label is separated by a full stop (dot). An example of an operational ___domain name with four levels of ___domain labels is sos.state.oh.us. 'sos' is said to be a sub-___domain of 'state.oh.us', and 'state' a sub-___domain of 'oh.us', etc. In general, subdomains are domains subordinate to their parent ___domain. An example of very deep levels of subdomain ordering are the IPv6 reverse resolution DNS zones, e.g., 1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa, which is the reverse DNS resolution ___domain name for the IP address of a loopback interface, or the localhost name.

Second-level (or lower-level, depending on the established parent hierarchy) ___domain names are often created based on the name of a company (e.g., bbc.co.uk), product or service (e.g. hotmail.com). Below these levels, the next ___domain name component has been used to designate a particular host server. Therefore, ftp.example.com might be an FTP server, www.example.com would be a World Wide Web server, and mail.example.com could be an email server, each intended to perform only the implied function. Modern technology allows multiple physical servers with either different (cf. load balancing) or even identical addresses (cf. anycast) to serve a single hostname or ___domain name, or multiple ___domain names to be served by a single computer. The latter is very popular in Web hosting service centers, where service providers host the websites of many organizations on just a few servers.

The hierarchical DNS labels or components of ___domain names are separated in a fully qualified name by the full stop (dot, .).

Internationalized ___domain names

Main article: Internationalized ___domain name

The character set allowed in the Domain Name System is based on ASCII and does not allow the representation of names and words of many languages in their native scripts or alphabets. ICANN approved the Internationalized ___domain name (IDNA) system, which maps Unicode strings used in application user interfaces into the valid DNS character set by an encoding called Punycode. For example, københavn.eu is mapped to xn--kbenhavn-54a.eu. Many registries have adopted IDNA.

Domain name registration

DNS history

The first commercial Internet ___domain name, in the TLD com, was registered on 15 March 1985 in the name symbolics.com by Symbolics Inc., a computer systems firm in Massachusetts.[21][22]

By 1992, fewer than 15,000 com domains had been registered.

In the first quarter of 2015, 294 million ___domain names had been registered.[23] A large fraction of them are in the com TLD, which as of December 21, 2014, had 115.6 million ___domain names,[24] including 11.9 million online business and e-commerce sites, 4.3 million entertainment sites, 3.1 million finance related sites, and 1.8 million sports sites.[25] As of July 15, 2012, the com TLD had more registrations than all of the ccTLDs combined.[26]

As of December 31, 2023, 359.8 million ___domain names had been registered.[27]

Administration

The right to use a ___domain name is delegated by ___domain name registrars, which are accredited by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the organization charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level ___domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization operating a registry. A registry is responsible for maintaining the database of names registered within the TLD it administers. The registry receives registration information from each ___domain name registrar authorized to assign names in the corresponding TLD and publishes the information using a special service, the WHOIS protocol and its successor Registration Data Access Protocol (RDAP).

Registries and registrars usually charge an annual fee for the service of delegating a ___domain name to a user and providing a default set of name servers. Often, this transaction is termed a sale or lease of the ___domain name, and the registrant may sometimes be called an "owner", but no such legal relationship is actually associated with the transaction, only the exclusive right to use the ___domain name. More correctly, authorized users are known as "registrants" or as "___domain holders".

ICANN publishes the complete list of TLD registries and ___domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with ___domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS protocol. For most of the 250 country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), the ___domain registries maintain the WHOIS or RDAP (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information.

Some ___domain name registries, often called network information centers (NIC), also function as registrars to end-users. The major generic top-level ___domain registries, such as for the com, net, org, info domains and others, use a registry-registrar model consisting of hundreds of ___domain name registrars (see lists at ICANN[28] or VeriSign).[29] In this method of management, the registry only manages the ___domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The registrants (users of a ___domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional layers of resellers.

There are also a few other alternative DNS root providers that try to compete or complement ICANN's role of ___domain name administration, however, most of them failed to receive wide recognition, and thus ___domain names offered by those alternative roots cannot be used universally on most other internet-connecting machines without additional dedicated configurations.

Technical requirements and process

In the process of registering a ___domain name and maintaining authority over the new name space created, registrars use several key pieces of information connected with a ___domain:

  • Administrative contact. A registrant usually designates an administrative contact to manage the ___domain name. The administrative contact usually has the highest level of control over a ___domain. Management functions delegated to the administrative contacts may include management of all business information, such as name of record, postal address, and contact information of the official registrant of the ___domain and the obligation to conform to the requirements of the ___domain registry in order to retain the right to use a ___domain name. Furthermore, the administrative contact installs additional contact information for technical and billing functions.
  • Technical contact. The technical contact manages the name servers of a ___domain name. The functions of a technical contact include assuring conformance of the configurations of the ___domain name with the requirements of the ___domain registry, maintaining the ___domain zone records, and providing continuous functionality of the name servers (that leads to the accessibility of the ___domain name).
  • Billing contact. The party responsible for receiving billing invoices from the ___domain name registrar and paying applicable fees.
  • Name servers. Most registrars provide two or more name servers as part of the registration service. However, a registrant may specify its own authoritative name servers to host a ___domain's resource records. The registrar's policies govern the number of servers and the type of server information required. Some providers require a hostname and the corresponding IP address or just the hostname, which must be resolvable either in the new ___domain, or exist elsewhere. Based on traditional requirements, typically a minimum of two servers is required.[30]

A ___domain name consists of one or more labels, each of which is formed from the set of ASCII letters, digits, and hyphens (a–z, A–Z, 0–9, -), but not starting or ending with a hyphen. The labels are case-insensitive; for example, 'label' is equivalent to 'Label' or 'LABEL'. In the textual representation of a ___domain name, the labels are separated by a full stop (period).

Business models

Domain names are often seen in analogy to real estate in that ___domain names are foundations on which a website can be built, and the highest quality ___domain names, like sought-after real estate, tend to carry significant value, usually due to their online brand-building potential, use in advertising, search engine optimization, and many other criteria.

A few companies have offered low-cost, below-cost, or even free ___domain registration with a variety of models adopted to recoup the costs to the provider. These usually require that domains be hosted on their website within a framework or portal that includes advertising wrapped around the ___domain holder's content, revenue from which allows the provider to recoup the costs. Domain registrations were free of charge when the DNS was new. A ___domain holder may provide an infinite number of subdomains in their ___domain. For example, the owner of example.org could provide subdomains such as foo.example.org and foo.bar.example.org to interested parties.

Many desirable ___domain names are already assigned and users must search for other acceptable names, using Web-based search features, or WHOIS, RDAP, and dig operating system tools. Many registrars have implemented ___domain name suggestion tools which search ___domain name databases and suggest available alternative ___domain names related to keywords provided by the user.

Resale of ___domain names

Main article: List of most expensive ___domain names

The business of resale of registered ___domain names is known as the ___domain aftermarket. Various factors influence the perceived value or market value of a ___domain name. Most of the high-prize ___domain sales are carried out privately.[31] Also, it is called confidential ___domain acquiring or anonymous ___domain acquiring.[32]

Domain name confusion

Intercapping is often used to emphasize the meaning of a ___domain name, because DNS names are not case-sensitive. Some names may be misinterpreted in certain uses of capitalization. For example: Who Represents, a database of artists and agents, chose whorepresents.com,[33] which can be misread. In such situations, the proper meaning may be clarified by placement of hyphens when registering a ___domain name. For instance, Experts Exchange, a programmers' discussion site, used expertsexchange.com, but changed its ___domain name to experts-exchange.com.[34]

Uses in website hosting

The ___domain name is a component of a uniform resource locator (URL) used to access websites, for example:

  • URL: http://www.example.net/index.html
  • Top-level ___domain: net
  • Second-level ___domain: example
  • Hostname: www

A ___domain name may point to multiple IP addresses to provide server redundancy for the services offered, a feature that is used to manage the traffic of large, popular websites.

Web hosting services, on the other hand, run servers that are typically assigned only one or a few addresses while serving websites for many domains, a technique referred to as virtual web hosting. Such IP address overloading requires that each request identifies the ___domain name being referenced, for instance by using the HTTP request header field Host:, or Server Name Indication.

Abuse and regulation

Critics often claim abuse of administrative power over ___domain names. Particularly noteworthy was the VeriSign Site Finder system which redirected all unregistered .com and .net domains to a VeriSign webpage. For example, at a public meeting with VeriSign to air technical concerns about Site Finder,[35] numerous people, active in the IETF and other technical bodies, explained how they were surprised by VeriSign's changing the fundamental behavior of a major component of Internet infrastructure, not having obtained the customary consensus. Site Finder, at first, assumed every Internet query was for a website, and it monetized queries for incorrect ___domain names, taking the user to VeriSign's search site. Other applications, such as many implementations of email, treat a lack of response to a ___domain name query as an indication that the ___domain does not exist, and that the message can be treated as undeliverable. The original VeriSign implementation broke this assumption for mail, because it would always resolve an erroneous ___domain name to that of Site Finder. While VeriSign later changed Site Finder's behaviour with regard to email, there was still widespread protest about VeriSign's action being more in its financial interest than in the interest of the Internet infrastructure component for which VeriSign was the steward.

Despite widespread criticism, VeriSign only reluctantly removed it after the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) threatened to revoke its contract to administer the root name servers. ICANN published the extensive set of letters exchanged, committee reports, and ICANN decisions.[36]

There is also significant disquiet regarding the United States Government's political influence over ICANN. This was a significant issue in the attempt to create a .xxx top-level ___domain and sparked greater interest in alternative DNS roots that would be beyond the control of any single country.[37]

Additionally, there are numerous accusations of ___domain name front running, whereby registrars, when given WHOIS or RDAP queries, automatically register the ___domain name for themselves. Network Solutions has been accused of this.[38]

Truth in Domain Names Act

In the United States, the Truth in Domain Names Act of 2003, in combination with the PROTECT Act of 2003, forbids the use of a misleading ___domain name with the intention of attracting Internet users into visiting Internet pornography sites.

The Truth in Domain Names Act follows the more general Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act passed in 1999 aimed at preventing typosquatting and deceptive use of names and trademarks in ___domain names.

Seizures

In the early 21st century, the US Department of Justice (DOJ) pursued the seizure of ___domain names, based on the legal theory that ___domain names constitute property used to engage in criminal activity, and thus are subject to forfeiture. For example, in the seizure of the ___domain name of a gambling website, the DOJ referenced 18 U.S.C. § 981 and 18 U.S.C. § 1955(d).[39][1] In 2013 the US government seized Liberty Reserve, citing 18 U.S.C. § 982(a)(1).[40]

The U.S. Congress passed the Combating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act in 2010. Consumer Electronics Association vice president Michael Petricone was worried that seizure was a blunt instrument that could harm legitimate businesses.[41][42] After a joint operation on February 15, 2011, the DOJ and the Department of Homeland Security claimed to have seized ten domains of websites involved in advertising and distributing child pornography, but also mistakenly seized the ___domain name of a large DNS provider, temporarily replacing 84,000 websites with seizure notices.[43]

In the United Kingdom, the Police Intellectual Property Crime Unit (PIPCU) has been attempting to seize ___domain names from registrars without court orders.[44]

Suspensions

PIPCU and other UK law enforcement organisations make ___domain suspension requests to Nominet which they process on the basis of breach of terms and conditions. Around 16,000 domains are suspended annually, and about 80% of the requests originate from PIPCU.[45]

Property rights

Because of the economic value it represents, the European Court of Human Rights has ruled that the exclusive right to a ___domain name is protected as property under article 1 of Protocol 1 to the European Convention on Human Rights.[46]

IDN variants

ICANN Business Constituency (BC) has spent decades trying to make IDN variants work at the second level, and in the last several years at the top level. Domain name variants are ___domain names recognized in different character encodings, like a single ___domain presented in traditional Chinese and simplified Chinese. It is an Internationalization and localization problem. Under Domain Name Variants, the different encodings of the ___domain name (in simplified and traditional Chinese) would resolve to the same host.[47][48]

According to John Levine, an expert on Internet related topics, "Unfortunately, variants don't work. The problem isn't putting them in the DNS, it's that once they're in the DNS, they don't work anywhere else."[47]

Fictitious ___domain name

A fictitious ___domain name is a ___domain name used in a work of fiction or popular culture to refer to a ___domain that does not actually exist, often with invalid or unofficial top-level domains such as ".web", a usage exactly analogous to the dummy 555 telephone number prefix used in film and other media. The canonical fictitious ___domain name is "example.com", specifically set aside by IANA for such use,[49] along with the .example TLD.

Domain names used in works of fiction have often been registered in the DNS, either by their creators or by cybersquatters attempting to profit from it. This phenomenon prompted NBC to purchase the ___domain name Hornymanatee.com after talk-show host Conan O'Brien spoke the name while ad-libbing on his show. O'Brien subsequently created a website based on the concept and used it as a running gag on the show.[50] Companies whose works have used fictitious ___domain names have also employed firms such as MarkMonitor to park fictional ___domain names in order to prevent misuse by third parties.[51]

Misspelled ___domain names

Misspelled ___domain names, also known as typosquatting or URL hijacking, are ___domain names that are intentionally or unintentionally misspelled versions of popular or well-known ___domain names. The goal of misspelled ___domain names is to capitalize on internet users who accidentally type in a misspelled ___domain name, and are then redirected to a different website.

Misspelled ___domain names are often used for malicious purposes, such as phishing scams or distributing malware. In some cases, the owners of misspelled ___domain names may also attempt to sell the ___domain names to the owners of the legitimate ___domain names, or to individuals or organizations who are interested in capitalizing on the traffic generated by internet users who accidentally type in the misspelled ___domain names.

To avoid being caught by a misspelled ___domain name, internet users should be careful to type in ___domain names correctly, and should avoid clicking on links that appear suspicious or unfamiliar. Additionally, individuals and organizations who own popular or well-known ___domain names should consider registering common misspellings of their ___domain names in order to prevent others from using them for malicious purposes.

Domain name spoofing

The term Domain name spoofing (or simply though less accurately, Domain spoofing) is used generically to describe one or more of a class of phishing attacks that depend on falsifying or misrepresenting an internet ___domain name.[52][53] These are designed to persuade unsuspecting users into visiting a web site other than that intended, or opening an email that is not in reality from the address shown (or apparently shown).[54] Although website and email spoofing attacks are more widely known, any service that relies on ___domain name resolution may be compromised.

Types

There are a number of better-known types of ___domain spoofing:

The typosquatter's URL will usually be one of five kinds, all similar to the victim site address:
  • A common misspelling, or foreign language spelling, of the intended site
  • A misspelling based on a typographical error
  • A plural of a singular ___domain name
  • A different top-level ___domain: (i.e. .com instead of .org)
  • An abuse of the Country Code Top-Level Domain (ccTLD) (.cm, .co, or .om instead of .com)
  • IDN homograph attack. This type of attack depends on registering a ___domain name that is similar to the 'target' ___domain, differing from it only because its spelling includes one or more characters that come from a different alphabet but look the same to the naked eye. For example, the Cyrillic, Latin, and Greek alphabets each have their own letter A, each of which has its own binary code point. Turkish has a dotless letter i (ı) that may not be perceived as different from the ASCII letter i. Most web browsers warn of 'mixed alphabet' ___domain names,[56][57][58][59] Other services, such as email applications, may not provide the same protection. Reputable top level ___domain and country code ___domain registrars will not accept applications to register a deceptive name but this policy cannot be presumed to be infallible.
  • DNS spoofing – Cyberattack using corrupt DNS data
  • Website spoofing – Creating a website, as a hoax, with the intention of misleading readers
  • Email spoofing – Creating email spam or phishing messages with a forged sender identity or address

Risk mitigation

Legitimate technologies that may be subverted

  • URL redirection – Technique for making a Web page available under more than one URL address
  • Domain fronting – Technique for Internet censorship circumvention

See also

 
Look up homograph in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Domain name space.
  • (___domain bias in web search) a research by Microsoft
  • Top Level Domain Bias in Search Engine Indexing and Rankings
  • Icann New gTLD Program Factsheet - October 2009 (PDF)
  • IANA Two letter Country Code TLD
  • ICANN - Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
  • Internic.net, public information regarding Internet ___domain name registration services
  • Internet Domain Names: Background and Policy Issues Congressional Research Service
  • RFC 1034 – "DOMAIN NAMES - CONCEPTS AND FACILITIES,"[30] Internet Standard 13.
  • RFC 1035 – "DOMAIN NAMES - IMPLEMENTATION AND SPECIFICATION,"[10] Internet Standard 13.
  • UDRP, Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy
  • Special use ___domain names

References

  1. ^ Stevens, W. Richard (1994). TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols. Vol. 1 (1 ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 9780201633467.
  2. ^ R. Arends; R. Austein; M. Larson; D. Massey; S. Rose (March 2005). Resource Records for the DNS Security Extensions. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC4034. RFC 4034. Proposed Standard. Updated by RFC 6014 and 6840. Obsoletes RFC 3755, 3008, 3445, 3090, 2535, 3757, 3845, 3655 and 3658. Updates RFC 3597, 2181, 2136, 3225, 3007, 1035, 3226, 2308 and 1034.
  3. ^ Low, Jerry. "Why are generic domains so expensive?". TheRealJerryLow.com. Archived from the original on 20 March 2019. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  4. ^ J. Klensin (February 2003). Role of the Domain Name System (DNS). Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC3467. RFC 3467. Informational.
  5. ^ Cricket Liu, Paul Albitz (2006). DNS and BIND (5th ed.). O'Reilly. p. 3. Archived from the original on 2011-09-05. Retrieved 2011-10-22.
  6. ^ P. Mockapetris (November 1983). Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC0882. RFC 882. Obsolete. Obsoleted by RFC 1034 and 1035. Updated by RFC 973.
  7. ^ P. Mockapetris (November 1983). Domain Names - Implementation and Specification. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC0883. RFC 883. Obsolete. Obsoleted by RFC 1034 and 1035. Updated by RFC 973.
  8. ^ "The first ever 20 ___domain names registered". ComputerWeekly.com. Archived from the original on 2020-08-08. Retrieved 2020-07-30.
  9. ^ Rooksby, Jacob H. (2015). "Defining Domain: Higher Education's Battles for Cyberspace". Brooklyn Law Review. 80 (3): 857–942. Archived from the original on 2018-11-07. Retrieved 2015-10-27. at p. 869
  10. ^ a b P. Mockapetris (November 1987). DOMAIN NAMES - IMPLEMENTATION AND SPECIFICATION. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1035. STD 13. RFC 1035. Internet Standard 13. Obsoletes RFC 882, 883 and 973. Updated by RFC 1101, 1183, 1348, 1876, 1982, 1995, 1996, 2065, 2136, 2137, 2181, 2308, 2535, 2673, 2845, 3425, 3658, 4033, 4034, 4035, 4343, 5936, 5966, 6604, 7766, 8482, 8490 and 8767.
  11. ^ "Introduction to Top-Level Domains (gTLDs)". Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). Archived from the original on 2009-06-15. Retrieved 2009-06-26.
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