Pythonidae: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Family of snakes}}

{{distinguish|text=[[Pythonides]], a genus of skippersbutterflies}}

{{Automatic taxobox

| name = Pythonidae

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| authority = [[Leopold Fitzinger|Fitzinger]], 1826

| synonyms = * Pythonoidia - Fitzinger, 1826

* Pythonoidei -– Eichwald, 1831

* Holodonta -– Müller, 1832

* Pythonina -– Bonaparte, 1840

* Pythophes -– Fitzinger, 1843

* Pythoniens -– A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1844

* Holodontes -– A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1844

* Pythonides -– A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1844

* Pythones -– Cope, 1861

* Pythonidae -– Cope, 1864

* Peropodes -– Meyer, 1874

* Chondropythonina -– Boulenger, 1879

* Pythoninae -– Boulenger, 1890

* Pythonini -– Underwood & Stimson, 1990

* Moreliini -– Underwood & Stimson, 1990<ref name="McD99">{{cite book|last1=McDiarmid|first1=Roy W. |last2=Campbell|first2=Jonathan A. |last3=Touré|first3=T'Shaka A. |title=Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQOuswEACAAJ|volume=1|year=1999|publisher=Herpetologists' League|isbn=978-1-893777-01-9}}</ref>

}}{{More citations needed|date=November 2022}}

[[File:LRMEXPORT 187433861073166 20200523 062423632a.jpg|alt=pythons|thumb|Indian python (''[[Python molurus]]'')]]

The '''Pythonidae''', commonly known as '''pythons''', are a [[Family (biology)|family]] of [[Venomous snake|nonvenomous]] <!-- (though see the section "Toxins" below) --> [[snake]]s found in Africa, Asia, and Australia. Among its members are some of the largest snakes in the world. Ten [[Genus|genera]] and 39 [[species]] are currently recognized. Being naturally non-venomous, pythons must constrict their prey to induce cardiac arrest prior to consumption. Pythons will typically strike at and bite their prey of choice to gain hold of it; they then must use physical strength to constrict their prey, by coiling their muscular bodies around the animal, effectively suffocating it before swallowing whole. This is in stark contrast to venomous snakes such as the [[rattlesnake]], for example, which delivers a swift, venomous bite but releases, waiting as the prey succumbs to [[envenomation]] before being consumed. Collectively, the pythons are well-documented and studied as constrictors, much like other non-venomous snakes, including the [[Boidae|boas]] and even [[kingsnakes]] of the New World.<ref name="ITIS">{{ITIS |id=563893 |taxon=Pythonidae |access-date=9 December 2019}}</ref>

Pythons are foundindigenous into regionsthe likeOld World Tropics, including sub-Saharan Africa, Southeasttropical to subtropical Asia, and Australia, with an invasive population of Burmese pythons in the Everglades National Park, Florida. TheyPythons are ambush predators that primarily kill prey by constriction, causing cardiac arrest. Pythons are oviparous, laying eggs that females incubate until they hatch. They possess premaxillary teeth, with the exception of adults in the Australian genus ''Aspidites''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/191269/1/03_vertebrate_zoology_70_3_2020_Georgalis_et_Smith.pdf |title=Constrictores Oppel, 1811 – the available name for the taxonomic group uniting boas and pythons |access-date=2020-12-12 |archivedate=2020-12-12 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212102353/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/191269/1/03_vertebrate_zoology_70_3_2020_Georgalis_et_Smith.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmc=5108151 | date=2016 | last1=Palci | first1=A. | last2=Lee | first2=M. S. | last3=Hutchinson | first3=M. N. | title=Patterns of postnatal ontogeny of the skull and lower jaw of snakes as revealed by micro-CT scan data and three-dimensional geometric morphometrics | journal=Journal of Anatomy | volume=229 | issue=6 | pages=723–754 | doi=10.1111/joa.12509 | pmid=27329823 }}</ref> While many species are available in the exotic pet trade, caution is needed with larger species due to potential danger. The taxonomy of pythons has evolved, and they are now known to be more closely related to sunbeam snakes and the Mexican burrowing python. {{cn|date=January 2025}}

Pythons are frequently poached for their meatskins, andwith skin,the leadingexport tomarket for skins from [[Southeast Asia]] estimated at a billion-dollar globaldollars tradein 2012. They are also sold and consumed as meat. They can carry diseases, such as salmonella and leptospirosis, which can be transmitted to humans. Pythons are also used in African traditional medicine to treat ailments like rheumatism and mental illnesses. Their body parts, including blood and organs, are believed to have various healing properties. In some African cultures, pythons have significant roles in folklore and mythology, often symbolizing strength or having sacred status.

==Distribution and habitat==

Pythons are found in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], [[Nepal]], [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Southeast Asia]], southeastern [[Pakistan]], southern [[China]], the [[Philippines]] and [[Australia]].<ref name="McD99"/>

===Invasive populations===

Two known populations of invasive pythons exist in the Western Hemisphere. In the United States, an introduced population of [[Burmese python]]s (''Python bivittatus'') has existed as an [[invasive species]] in [[Everglades National Park]] since the late 1990s. As of January 2023, estimates place the Floridian Burmese python population at around half a million. Local bounties are awarded and scientists study dead Burmese pythons to better understand breeding cycles and trends associated with rapid population explosion. The pythons readily prey on native North American fauna in Florida, including (but not limited to) [[American alligator]]s, birds, [[bobcat]]s, [[American bullfrog]]s, [[Virginia opossum|opossum]]s, [[raccoon]]s, [[North American river otter|river otter]]s, [[white-tailed deer]], and occasionally domestic pets and livestock. They are also known to prey on other invasive and introduced animals to Florida, such as the [[green iguana]] and [[nutria]] (coypu), though not at a rate as to lower their numbers rapidly or effectively.<ref name="NGeo">{{cite web | url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/06/0603_040603_invasivespecies.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040611213130/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/06/0603_040603_invasivespecies.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = June 11, 2004 | title = Huge, Freed Pet Pythons Invade Florida Everglades | work = National Geographic News | access-date = 16 September 2007 }}</ref>

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==Conservation==

{{Expand section|date=November 2022}}

Many species have been hunted aggressively, which has greatly reduced the population of some, such as the [[Indian python]] (''Python molurus'') and the [[Ballball python]] (''Python regius'').{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}

==Behavior==

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Pythons use their sharp, backward-curving teeth, four rows in the upper jaw, two in the lower, to grasp prey which is then killed by [[constriction]]; after an animal has been grasped to restrain it, the python quickly wraps a number of coils around it.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Death occurs primarily by [[cardiac arrest]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last1 = Hardy | first1 = David L | name-list-style = vanc | year = 1994 | title = A re-evaluation of suffocation as the cause of death during constriction by snakes | journal = Herpetological Review | volume = 25|issue=22 | pages = 45–47 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Boback SM, McCann KJ, Wood KA, McNeal PM, Blankenship EL, Zwemer CF | title = Snake constriction rapidly induces circulatory arrest in rats | journal = The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume = 218 | issue = Pt 14 | pages = 2279–88 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26202779 | doi = 10.1242/jeb.121384 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Even the larger species, such as the [[reticulated python]] (''Malayopython reticulatus''), do not crush their prey to death.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rossman |first=Sean |title=Pythons can kill a human in minutes and swallow them in an hour |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2017/03/30/pythons-can-kill-human-minutes-and-swallow-them-hour/99824246/ |access-date=2024-08-17 |website=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref>

Larger specimens usually eat animals about the size of a domestic cat, but larger food items are known; some large Asian species have been known to take down adult [[deer]], and the [[Central African rock python]], (''Python sebae'',) has been known to eat [[antelope]]. The [[reticulated python]] is the only python species known to sometimes eat humans in its natural habitat in Sulawesi, Indonesia.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/python-kills-woman-indonesia-swallowed-up-to-her-shoulders-officials-say|title=Woman dies in python attack after being swallowed up to her shoulders, Indonesia officials say |author = AFP |date=16 August 2024|via=www.cbsnews.com|newspaper=CBS News}}</ref> All prey is swallowed whole, and may take several days or even weeks to fully digest.[[File:Python skull rotation.gif|alt=What a python skull looks like|A python skull|right|thumb]]

==Reproduction==

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==Relationship with humans==

=== PoachingSkin pythonsand meat trade ===

[[Poaching]]Trade ofin pythonspython skins is a lucrative business with the globalexport pythonmarket skinfrom tradeSoutheast being anAsia estimated at US$1 billion as of 2012.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-20509720|title=ConcernsPython raisedskin overtrade pythonworth a billion – and often illegal trade|last=McGrath|first=Matt |website=[[BBC News]] | name-list-style = vanc |date=2012-11-28|access-date=2019-03-14|language=en-GB}}</ref> Much of the trade is illegal, and python farming is very expensive.<ref>{{cite news | first = Victoria | last = Turk | name-list-style = vanc |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/snake-farms-could-tackle-the-billion-dollar-black-market-for-python-skin/|title=Snake Farms Could Tackle the Billion Dollar Black Market for Python Skin|date=2014-04-02|work=Motherboard|access-date=2019-03-14|language=en-us}}</ref> Pythons are poached for their meat, mostly consumed locally as [[bushmeat]] and their skin, which is sent to Europe and North America for manufacture of accessories like bags, belts and shoes.<ref name = "Jensen_2017">{{cite web|first=Timm Juul|last=Jensen|name-list-style=vanc|url=https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2017/09/05/large-snakes-are-on-the-menu-at-cameroons-nkoldongo-bushmeat-market/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108033842/https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2017/09/05/large-snakes-are-on-the-menu-at-cameroons-nkoldongo-bushmeat-market/|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 8, 2018|title=Large snakes are on the menu at Cameroon's Nkoldongo bushmeat market|work=National Geographic Society Newsroom|date=5 September 2017|access-date=2019-03-14}}</ref> The demand for poaching is increased because python farming is very expensive.<ref>{{cite news | first = Victoria | last = Turk | name-list-style = vanc |url=https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/pgapvv/snake-farms-could-tackle-the-billion-dollar-black-market-for-python-skin|title=Snake Farms Could Tackle the Billion Dollar Black Market for Python Skin|date=2014-04-02|work=Motherboard|access-date=2019-03-14|language=en-us}}</ref>

In [[Cameroon]] bushmeat markets, the [[Central African rock python]] (''Python sebae'') is commonly sold for meat and is very expensive at US$175.<ref name = "Jensen_2017" /> TheHunting, poachingkilling ofand theselling pythons is illegal in [[Cameroon]] under theirnational wildlife law, but there is little to no enforcement. In [[Kenya]], there has been an increase in snake farms to address the demand for [[snakeskin]] internationally, but there are health concerns for the workers, and danger due to poachers coming to the farms to hunt the snakes.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-38499611|title=The rising popularity of snake farms|last=Njeru|first=Gitonga| name-list-style = vanc"Jensen_2017" |date=2017-01-19|access-date=2019-03-14|language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Pythons and human health ===

While pythonsPythons are not venomous, theybut dolike carryother areptiles, hostthey ofcan potential health issues for humans. Pythons are diseasebe vectors for multipleinfections illnesses,that includingaffect [[Salmonellosis|Salmonella]]humans, [[Chlamydiasuch infection|Chlamydia]],as [[Leptospirosis]], [[Aeromoniasis]], [[Campylobacteriosis]], and [[Zygomycosissalmonella]]. TheseSuch diseases may be transmitted to humans through excreted waste, open wounds, and contaminated water.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Potential Zoonoses/Hazards Associated with Reptiles|url=https://ras.research.cornell.edu/care/documents/OHS/zoonosis_information_sheet_reptiles.pdf|journal=Cornell Center for Animal Resources and Education}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ebani VV | title = Domestic reptiles as source of zoonotic bacteria: A mini review | journal = Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine | volume = 10 | issue = 8 | pages = 723–728 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 28942820 | doi = 10.1016/j.apjtm.2017.07.020 | doi-access = free | hdl = 11568/880208 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> A 2013 study found that Reptile-Associated Salmonella (RAS) is most common in young children who had been in contact with invasive pythons, with symptoms including "[[sepsis]], [[meningitis]], and bone and joint infection".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Meyer Sauteur PM, Relly C, Hug M, Wittenbrink MM, Berger C | title = Risk factors for invasive reptile-associated salmonellosis in children | journal = Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 419–21 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23473215 | doi = 10.1089/vbz.2012.1133 | s2cid = 1311418 | url = https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/79426/1/Meyer_Vector-Borne_2013.pdf }}</ref>

Pythons are also integrated into some aspects of African health and belief use, often with the added risk of contacting zoonotic diseases. Python bodies and blood are used for African traditional medicines and other belief uses as well, one in-depth study of all animals used by the Yorubas of Nigeria for traditional medicine found that the African Python is used to cure rheumatism, snake poison, appeasing witches, and accident prevention.<ref name {{cn|date=May "Soewu_2008" />2025}}

Python habitats, diets, and invasion into new areas also impact human health and prosperity. A University of Florida Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences study found that the [[Burmese python]], as an invasive species, enters new habitats and eats an increasing number of mammals, leaving limited species for mosquitoes to bite, forcing them to bite disease-carrying [[hispid cotton rat]]s and then infect humans with the [[Everglades virus]], a dangerous infection that is carried by very few animals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoyer IJ, Blosser EM, Acevedo C, Thompson AC, Reeves LE, Burkett-Cadena ND | title = Mammal decline, linked to invasive Burmese python, shifts host use of vector mosquito towards reservoir hosts of a zoonotic disease | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 13 | issue = 10 | pages = 20170353 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 28978755 | pmc = 5665769 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2017.0353 }}</ref> While direct human-python interactions can be potentially dangerous, the risk of zoonotic diseases is always a concern, whether considering medical and belief use in Nigeria or when addressing invasive species impacts in Florida. In 2022, a woman who lived near a lake area in south-eastern [[New South Wales]] state, [[Australia]], was found to be infested with the [[Ophidascaris robertsi]] roundworm which is common in [[carpet python]]s - non-venomous snakes found across much of Australia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-08-29 |title=Live worm found in Australian woman's brain in world first |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-66643241 |access-date=2023-09-26}} </ref>

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=== Traditional use ===

==== Skin ====

Python skin has traditionally been used as the attire of choice for medicine men and healers.<ref name="AlexanderMoshoeu2016">{{cite journal|last1=Alexander|first1=Graham J.|last2=Moshoeu|first2=Thibedi J.|last3=Williams|first3=Vivienne L.|title=Reptiles sold as traditional medicine in Xipamanine and Xiquelene Markets (Maputo, Mozambique)|journal=South African Journal of Science|volume=112|issue= 7/8|year=2016|page=9 |issn=0038-2353|doi=10.17159/sajs.2016/20150416|doi-access=free}}</ref> Typically, [[South Africa]]n [[Zulu people|Zulu]] traditional healers will use python skin in ceremonial regalia.<ref name="AlexanderMoshoeu2016" /> Pythons are viewed by the Zulu tradition to be a sign of power. This is likely why the skin is worn by traditional healers. Healers are seen as all-powerful since they have a wealth of knowledge, as well as accessibility to the ancestors.<ref name="AlexanderMoshoeu2016" />

==== Fat ====

Typically, species are attributed to healing various ailments based on their likeliness to a specific bodily attribute. For example, in many cultures, the python is seen as a strong and powerful creature. As a result, pythons are often prescribed as a method of increasing strength.<ref name="AlexanderMoshoeu2016" /> It is very common for the body fat of pythons to be used to treat a large variation of issues such as [[joint pain]], [[Rheumatism|rheumatic pain]], [[toothache]] and [[eye sight]].<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last1=Dasgupta|first1=Subir Chandra|last2=Gomes|first2=Antony|last3=Mukherjee|first3=Sanghamitra | name-list-style = vanc Cn|date=2017|title=ZooMay Therapeutic uses of Snake Body Parts in Folk & Traditional Medicine|url=https://www.sryahwapublications.com/journal-of-zoological-research/volume-1-issue-1/1.php|journal=Journal of Zoological Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=1–9|doi=10.22259/2637-5575.0101001 |doi-access=free2025}}</ref> Additionally, python fat has been used to treat those suffering from mental illnesses like [[psychosis]].<ref name="KajawuChingarande2015">{{cite journal|last1=Kajawu|first1=Lazarus|last2=Chingarande|first2=Sunungurai D.|last3=Jack|first3=Helen|last4=Ward|first4=Catherine|last5=Taylor|first5=Tonya|title=What do African traditional medical practitioners do in the treatment of mental disorders in Zimbabwe?|journal=International Journal of Culture and Mental Health|volume=9|issue=1|year=2015|pages=44–55|issn=1754-2863|doi=10.1080/17542863.2015.1106568 |s2cid=57728277| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283805674 }}</ref> Their calm nature is thought to be of use to treat combative patients. The fat of the python is rubbed onto the body part that is in pain. To improve mental illnesses, it is often rubbed on the temple.<ref name{{Cn|date=":2"May />2025}} The existence of evidence for genuine anti inflammatory and anti-microbial properties of the refined 'snake oil' is ironic with respect to the expression "snake oil salesman".<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19051590/|pmid = 19051590|year = 2008|last1 = Falodun|first1 = A.|last2 = Owolabi|first2 = O. J.|last3 = Osahon|first3 = O.|title = Physicochemical, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory evaluation of fixed oil from Boa constrictor|journal = Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica|volume = 65|issue = 4|pages = 477–480}}</ref>

==== Blood ====

Python blood plays another important role in [[traditional medicine]]. Many believe that python blood prevents the accumulation of [[fatty acid]]s, [[triglyceride]]s and [[lipid]]s from reaching critically high levels.<ref name=":2" /> Additionally, their blood has been used as a source of iron for people who are anemic, which helps reduce fatigue.<ref name=":2" />''[''The sources were not specific on the way this blood is administered; however, due to the use of snake blood in traditional treatments in other parts of the world for similar causes, it is likely that the patient drinks the blood in order to feel the effects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fita DS, Costa Neto EM, Schiavetti A | title = 'Offensive' snakes: cultural beliefs and practices related to snakebites in a Brazilian rural settlement | journal = Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine | volume = 6 | pages = 13 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20346120 | pmc = 2853519 | doi = 10.1186/1746-4269-6-13 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==== Feces ====

The Sukuma tribe of [[Tanzania]] have been known to use python [[feces]] in order to treat back pain. The feces are frequently mixed with a little water, placed on the back, and left for two to three days.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vats R, Thomas S | title = A study on use of animals as traditional medicine by Sukuma Tribe of Busega District in North-western Tanzania | journal = Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pagesarticle-number = 38 | date = May 2015 | pmid = 25947365 | pmc = 4472419 | doi = 10.1186/s13002-015-0001-y | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==== Organs ====

In Nigeria, the [[gallbladder]] and [[liver]] of a python are used to treat poison or bites from other snakes.<ref name{{cn|date="Soewu_2008"May />2025}} The python head has been used to "appease witches". Many traditional African cultures believe that they can be cursed by witches. In order to reverse spells and bad luck, traditional doctors will prescribe python heads.<ref name = "Soewu_2008">{{cite journal Cn| vauthors = Soewu DA | title = Wild animals in ethnozoological practices among the Yorubas of southwestern Nigeria and the implications for biodiversity conservation. | journal = African Journal of Agricultural Research | date =May June 2008 | volume = 3 | issue = 6 | pages = 421–7 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228671991 2025}}</ref>

== Folklore ==

{{See|Pythons' eyes in Meitei culture}}

In northwestern [[Ghana]], people see pythons as a savior and have taboos to prevent the snake from being harmed or eaten. Their folklore states that this is because a python once helped them flee from their enemies by transforming into a log to allow them to cross a river.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Diawuo F, Issifu AK | title = Exploring the African traditional belief systems in natural resource conservation and management in Ghana. | journal = The Journal of Pan African Studies | date = December 2015 | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | pages = 115–31 | url = http://www.jpanafrican.org/docs/vol8no9/8.9-10-FDiawuo.pdf }}</ref>