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Epitafi risalenti alla dinastia Tang attestano coppie miste cristiane a [[Luoyang]], come quello della donna cristiana nestoriana sogdiana, la «signora An» (安氏), deceduta nell'821, sposata con Hua Xian (花献), un cristiano nestoriano cinese, deceduto nell'827. Probabilmente, gli uomini cinesi cristiani sposavano donne sogdiane per la mancanza di donne cinesi cristiane disponibili.<ref>{{cita libro | autore=Kenneth T. Morrow | data=maggio 2019 | titolo=Negotiating Belonging: The Church of the East's Contested Identity in Tang China | editore=THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT DALLAS | url=https://utd-ir.tdl.org/bitstream/handle/10735.1/6946/ETD-5608-017-MORROW-260204.19.pdf | pp=109-135, viii, xv, 156, 164, 115, 116}}</ref> Un altro epitafio di Luoyang riguarda una donna cristiana nestoriana sogdiana, anch'essa cognominata An, sepolta dal figlio ufficiale militare nel gennaio 815. Suo marito, un cinese, aveva il cognome He (和), e sulla stele funeraria la famiglia venne descritta come multietnica.<ref>{{cita libro | autore=Kenneth T. Morrow | data=maggio 2019 | titolo=Negotiating Belonging: The Church of the East's Contested Identity in Tang China | editore=The University of Texas at Dallas | url=https://utd-ir.tdl.org/bitstream/handle/10735.1/6946/ETD-5608-017-MORROW-260204.19.pdf | pp=155–156, 149, 150, viii, xv}}</ref> I figli di queste unioni miste avevano varie opportunità di carriera nell'amministrazione civile e militare, e professavano apertamente il cristianesimo, sostenendo monasteri cristiani.<ref>{{cita libro | autore=Kenneth T. Morrow | data=maggio 2019 | titolo=Negotiating Belonging: The Church of the East's Contested Identity in Tang China | editore=The University of Texas at Dallas | url=https://utd-ir.tdl.org/bitstream/handle/10735.1/6946/ETD-5608-017-MORROW-260204.19.pdf | pp=164}}</ref>
[[File:Northern Zhou Dynasty Tomb of Shijun (roof reconstructed).jpg|thumb|Tomba di Wirkak, ufficiale sogdiano in Cina, costruita a [[Xi'an]] nel 580, durante la [[dinastia Zhou Settentrionale]]. Xi'an City Museum.]]
DuringDurante thela dinastia Tang ande le subsequentsuccessive [[FiveCinque Dynastiesdinastie ande Tendieci Kingdomsregni|FiveCinque DynastiesDinastie]] ande [[dinastia Song dynasty]], aesisteva largeuna communitynumerosa ofcomunità Sogdianssogdiana alsoanche existednel incosmopolita theemporio multiculturalcommerciale ''[[entrepôt]]'' ofdi Dunhuang, nel Gansu, aun majorimportante centercentro ofdi Buddhistapprendimento learningbuddhista ande homesede todelle the[[Grotte Buddhistdi [[Mogao|grotte Cavesbuddhiste di Mogao]].<ref>Galambos,{{cita libro | autore=Imre (Galambos | anno=2015), "| capitolo=''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in| curatore=Antje Richter, ''| titolo=A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', | editore=Brill: Leiden| città=Leida, Boston, pp| 870–71.pp=870-71}}</ref> AlthoughSebbene Dunhuang ande theil HexiCorridoio Corridordi wereHexi capturedfossero bystati theconquistati dall'[[TibetanImpero Empiretibetano]] afterdopo thela rivolta di An Lushan Rebellion, in nell'848 theil ethnicgenerale Hancinese Chinese general [[Zhang Yichao]] (799–872799-872) managedriuscì toa wrestlestrappare controlil ofcontrollo thedella regionregione fromai [[EraTibetani ofdurante Fragmentation|thela Tibetansloro duringguerra theircivile, civilistituendo war]],il establishing''Circuito thedi [[Guiyi'' Circuit]]sotto under [[Emperorl'imperatore Xuānzong ofdei Tang]] (r. 846–859846-859).<ref>Taenzer,{{cita libro | autore=Gertraud (Taenzer | anno=2016), "| capitolo=Changing Relations between Administration, Clergy and Lay People in Eastern Central Asia: a Case Study According to the Dunhuang Manuscripts Referring to the Transition from Tibetan to Local Rule in Dunhuang, 8th–11th Centuries", in| curatore=Carmen Meinert, ''| titolo=Transfer of Buddhism Across Central Asian Networks (7th to 13th Centuries)'', Leiden| città=Leida, Boston: | editore=Brill, pp| 35–37.pp=35-37}}</ref><ref name="ZZTJ249">''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', [[:zh:s:資治通鑑/卷249|vol. 249]].</ref> AlthoughAnche these regionla occasionallyregione fellpassò underoccasionalmente thesotto ruleil ofdominio di differentdiversi statesstati, itmantenne retainedil itssuo multilingualcarattere naturemultilingue, ascome evidenceddimostra byla angrande abundancequantità ofdi manuscriptsmanoscritti (religiousreligiosi ande secularsecolari) in [[ChineseLingua languagecinese|Chinesecinese]] ande [[Tibetan languages|Tibetan]]tibetano, butma alsoanche in [[SogdianLingua languagesogdiana|Sogdiansogdiano]], [[SakaLingua languagesaka|Khotanesekhotanese]] (anotherun'altra [[EasternLingue iraniche orientali|lingua Iranianiranica languageorientale]] nativeautoctona todella [[Western RegionsXiyu|the regionregione]]), [[UyghurLingua languageuigura|Uyghuruiguro]], ande [[SanskritLingua sanscrita|sanscrito]].<ref>Galambos,{{cita libro | autore=Imre (Galambos | anno=2015), "| capitolo=''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in| curatore=Antje Richter, ''| titolo=A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', | editore=Brill: Leiden| città=Leida, Boston, p| pp=871.}}</ref>
ThereEsistevano werenove nineimportanti prominentclan Sogdiansogdiani, clansnoti come ''Zhāowŭ jiŭ xìng'' (昭武九姓). TheI namesnomi ofdi thesequesti clansclan havesono beenstati deduceddedotti fromdai thecognomi [[Chinese surname]]scinesi listedelencati in aun [[Dunhuangmanoscritto manuscripts|Tang-eradi Dunhuang manuscript]]dell'epoca Tang (''Pelliot chinois 3319V'').<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" /> EachOgni "clan"nome namedi refers«clan» tocorrispondeva a differentuna citydiversa città-statestato, aspoiché thei SogdianSogdiani usedadottavano theil namenome ofdella theirloro hometowncittà asd'origine theircome Chinesecognome surnamecinese.<ref>Galambos,{{cita libro | autore=Imre (Galambos | anno=2015), "| capitolo=''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in| curatore=Antje Richter, ''| titolo=A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', | editore=Brill: Leiden| città=Leida, Boston, pp| 871–72.pp=871-72}}</ref> OfTra thesequesti, theil mostcognome commonsogdiano Sogdianpiù surnamediffuso throughoutin ChinaCina wasera [[Shí (surname石)|Shí]] (石, generallygeneralmente givenattribuito toa thosechi fromproveniva da Chach, modern(l'odierna [[Tashkent]]). TheAnche followingi surnamesseguenti alsocognomi appearappaiono frequentlyfrequentemente onnei Dunhuangmanoscritti manuscriptse andnei registri di registersDunhuang: [[Shǐ (surname)|Shǐ]] (史, fromda Kesh, modernl'attuale [[ShahrisabzŠachrisabz]]), [[An (surname)|An]] (安, fromda BukharaBuchara), [[Mi (surname)|Mi]] (米, fromda [[PanjakentPendžikent]]), [[Kang (Chinese surname)|Kāng]] (康, fromda [[SamarkandSamarcanda]]), [[Cao (Chinese surname)|Cáo]] (曹, fromda Kabudhan, northa ofnord thedel fiume [[Zeravshan River|Zeravšan]]), ande [[Hé]] (何, fromda Kushaniyah).<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" /><ref>Galambos,{{cita libro | autore=Imre (Galambos | anno=2015), "| capitolo=''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in| curatore=Antje Richter, ''| titolo=A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', | editore=Brill: Leiden| città=Leida, Boston, p.| pp=872.}}</ref> Si dice che [[ConfuciusConfucio]] isabbia saidespresso toil havedesiderio expresseddi avivere desiretra tole live«nove amongtribù», theil "nineche tribes"potrebbe whichessere mayun haveriferimento beenproprio a reference to thealla Sogdiancomunità communitysogdiana.<ref>{{Citecita web |last=Chung |firstautore=Ha-Sung H. Chung |title titolo=Traces of the Lost 10 Tribes of Israel in Chinese and Korean Sources | url=https://www.academia.edu/61126693}}</ref>
[[File:Tang Sancai Porcelain with Musicians on a Camel (no background).jpg|thumb| AStatuetta [[ TangDinastia dynastyTang|Tang]] in ''[[sancai]]'' statuettedi ofmercanti Sogdiansogdiani merchantsa ridingdorso on adi [[ BactrianCamelus camelbactrianus|cammello battriano]], 723 AD, [[Xi'an]].]] ▼
L'influenza dei sogdiani sinizzati e multilingui durante il periodo ''Guiyijun'' (歸義軍, circa 850-1000) di Dunhuang è evidente in un gran numero di manoscritti redatti con [[caratteri cinesi]] scritti da sinistra a destra, anziché verticalmente, rispecchiando la direzione di lettura dell'[[alfabeto sogdiano]].<ref>{{cita libro | autore=Imre Galambos | anno=2015 | capitolo=''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang | curatore=Antje Richter | titolo=A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture | editore=Brill | città=Leida, Boston | pp=870, 873}}</ref> I Sogdiani di Dunhuang comunemente formavano o aderivano a gruppi laici nelle loro comunità locali, incontrandosi regolarmente nelle [[Taverna (pubblico esercizio)|taverne]] di proprietà sogdiana, come menzionato nelle loro [[Epistola|lettere epistolari]].<ref>{{cita libro | autore=Imre Galambos | anno=2015 | capitolo=''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang | curatore=Antje Richter | titolo=A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture | editore=Brill | città=Leida, Boston | pp=872-73}}</ref> I Sogdiani che vivevano a Turfan sotto la dinastia Tang e nel Regno di [[Gaochang]] erano impegnati in diverse occupazioni, tra cui agricoltura, serizio militare, pittura, lavorazione del cuoio e commercio di prodotti come quelli in ferro.<ref name="hansen 2012 p98"/> I Sogdiani avevano iniziato a migrare a Turfan fin dal IV secolo, ma il ritmo della migrazione aumentò significativamente dopo la [[Conquista islamica della Persia|conquista musulmana della Persia]] e la [[Conquista islamica della Persia|caduta dell'Impero sasanide]] nel 651, seguite dalla conquista islamica di Samarcanda nel 712.<ref name="hansen 2012 p98"/>
▲[[File:Tang Sancai Porcelain with Musicians on a Camel (no background).jpg|thumb|A [[Tang dynasty]] ''[[sancai]]'' statuette of Sogdian merchants riding on a [[Bactrian camel]], 723 AD, [[Xi'an]].]]
The influence of [[Sinicized]] and multilingual Sogdians during this ''Guiyijun'' (歸義軍) period (c. 850 – c. 1000 AD) of Dunhuang is evident in a large number of manuscripts written in [[Chinese characters]] from left to right instead of vertically, mirroring the direction of how the [[Sogdian alphabet]] is read.<ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 870, 873.</ref> Sogdians of Dunhuang also commonly formed and joined lay associations among their local communities, convening at Sogdian-owned [[tavern]]s in scheduled meetings mentioned in their [[epistle|epistolary letters]].<ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 872–73.</ref> Sogdians living in Turfan under the Tang dynasty and [[Gaochang]] Kingdom engaged in a variety of occupations that included: farming, military service, painting, [[leather crafting]] and selling products such as iron goods.<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" /> The Sogdians had been migrating to Turfan since the 4th century, yet the pace of migration began to climb steadily with the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] and [[Fall of the Sasanian Empire]] in 651, followed by the Islamic conquest of Samarkand in 712.<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" />
Durante la dinastia Tang e le successive [[Cinque dinastie e dieci regni|Cinque Dinastie]] e [[dinastia Song]], esisteva una numerosa comunità sogdiana anche nel cosmopolita emporio commerciale di Dunhuang, nel Gansu, un importante centro di apprendimento buddhista e sede delle [[Grotte di Mogao|grotte buddhiste di Mogao]].<ref>{{cita libro | autore=Imre Galambos | anno=2015 | capitolo=''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang | curatore=Antje Richter | titolo=A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture | editore=Brill | città=Leida, Boston | pp=870-71}}</ref> Sebbene Dunhuang e il Corridoio di Hexi fossero stati conquistati dall'[[Impero tibetano]] dopo la rivolta di An Lushan, nell'848 il generale cinese Zhang Yichao (799-872) riuscì a strappare il controllo della regione ai Tibetani durante la loro guerra civile, istituendo il ''Circuito di Guiyi'' sotto l'imperatore Xuānzong dei Tang (r. 846-859).<ref>{{cita libro | autore=Gertraud (Taenzer | anno=2016 | capitolo=Changing Relations between Administration, Clergy and Lay People in Eastern Central Asia: a Case Study According to the Dunhuang Manuscripts Referring to the Transition from Tibetan to Local Rule in Dunhuang, 8th–11th Centuries | curatore=Carmen Meinert | titolo=Transfer of Buddhism Across Central Asian Networks (7th to 13th Centuries) | città=Leida, Boston | editore=Brill | pp 35-37}}</ref><ref name="ZZTJ249">''Zizhi Tongjian'', [[:zh:s:資治通鑑/卷249|vol. 249]].</ref> Anche se la regione passò occasionalmente sotto il dominio di diversi stati, mantenne il suo carattere multilingue, come dimostra la grande quantità di manoscritti (religiosi e secolari) in [[Lingua cinese|cinese]] e tibetano, ma anche in [[Lingua sogdiana|sogdiano]], [[Lingua saka|khotanese]] (un'altra [[Lingue iraniche orientali|lingua iranica orientale]] autoctona della [[Xiyu|regione]]), [[Lingua uigura|uiguro]] e [[Lingua sanscrita|sanscrito]].<ref>{{cita libro | autore=Imre Galambos | anno=2015 | capitolo=''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang | curatore=Antje Richter | titolo=A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture | editore=Brill | città=Leida, Boston | p=871}}</ref>
There were nine prominent Sogdian clans (昭武九姓). The names of these clans have been deduced from the [[Chinese surname]]s listed in a [[Dunhuang manuscripts|Tang-era Dunhuang manuscript]] (Pelliot chinois 3319V).<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" /> Each "clan" name refers to a different city-state as the Sogdian used the name of their hometown as their Chinese surname.<ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 871–72.</ref> Of these the most common Sogdian surname throughout China was [[Shí (surname)|Shí]] (石, generally given to those from Chach, modern [[Tashkent]]). The following surnames also appear frequently on Dunhuang manuscripts and registers: [[Shǐ (surname)|Shǐ]] (史, from Kesh, modern [[Shahrisabz]]), [[An (surname)|An]] (安, from Bukhara), [[Mi (surname)|Mi]] (米, from [[Panjakent]]), [[Kang (Chinese surname)|Kāng]] (康, from [[Samarkand]]), [[Cao (Chinese surname)|Cáo]] (曹, from Kabudhan, north of the [[Zeravshan River]]), and [[Hé]] (何, from Kushaniyah).<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" /><ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Brill: Leiden, Boston, p. 872.</ref> [[Confucius]] is said to have expressed a desire to live among the "nine tribes" which may have been a reference to the Sogdian community.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chung |first=Ha-Sung H. |title=Traces of the Lost 10 Tribes of Israel in Chinese and Korean Sources |url=https://www.academia.edu/61126693}}</ref>
[[File:Tang Sancai Porcelain with Musicians on a Camel (no background).jpg|thumb|A [[Tang dynasty]] ''[[sancai]]'' statuette of Sogdian merchants riding on a [[Bactrian camel]], 723 AD, [[Xi'an]].]]
The influence of [[Sinicized]] and multilingual Sogdians during this ''Guiyijun'' (歸義軍) period (c. 850 – c. 1000 AD) of Dunhuang is evident in a large number of manuscripts written in [[Chinese characters]] from left to right instead of vertically, mirroring the direction of how the [[Sogdian alphabet]] is read.<ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 870, 873.</ref> Sogdians of Dunhuang also commonly formed and joined lay associations among their local communities, convening at Sogdian-owned [[tavern]]s in scheduled meetings mentioned in their [[epistle|epistolary letters]].<ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "''She'' Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 872–73.</ref> Sogdians living in Turfan under the Tang dynasty and [[Gaochang]] Kingdom engaged in a variety of occupations that included: farming, military service, painting, [[leather crafting]] and selling products such as iron goods.<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" /> The Sogdians had been migrating to Turfan since the 4th century, yet the pace of migration began to climb steadily with the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] and [[Fall of the Sasanian Empire]] in 651, followed by the Islamic conquest of Samarkand in 712.<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" />
== Language and culture ==
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