|
Per entrambi i sessi, i vestiti erano aderenti e si apprezzavano le linee strette in vita e ai polsi. Le silhouette per gli uomini adulti e le giovani donne enfatizzavano spalle larghe che si restringevano verso la vita; le silhouette per le aristocratiche erano più complesse. L'abbigliamento sogdiano subì un profondo processo di islamizzazione nei secoli successivi, con pochi elementi originali rimasti. Al loro posto divennero più comuni turbanti, [[caffettano|caftani]] e mantelli con maniche.<ref name="YatsenkoSogdianCostume"/>
=== ReligiousCredenze beliefsreligiose ===
I Sogdiani praticavano una varietà di fedi religiose. Tuttavia, lo zoroastrismo fu con tutta probabilità la loro religione principale, come dimostrano le prove materiali, tra cui il ritrovamento a Samarcanda, Pendžikent ed Er-Kurgan di affreschi raffiguranti fedeli che offrono sacrifici davanti ad altari del fuoco e [[Ossario cimiteriale|ossari]] contenenti le ossa dei defunti – in conformità con il rito zoroastriano. A [[Turfan]], le sepolture sogdiane presentavano caratteristiche simili alle pratiche tradizionali cinesi, ma conservavano elementi essenziali dello zoroastrismo, come l'[[Torri del silenzio|esposizione dei corpi]] agli animali necrofagi prima della deposizione delle ossa negli ossari.<ref name="hansen 2012 p98">{{cita libro | autore=Valerie Hansen | anno=2012 | titolo=The Silk Road: A New History | editore=Oxford University Press | p=98 | isbn=978-0-19-993921-3}}</ref> Essi sacrificavano anche animali alle divinità zoroastriane, compreso il dio supremo [[Ahura Mazda]].<ref name="hansen 2012 p98"/> Lo zoroastrismo rimase la religione dominante tra i Sogdiani fino alla [[Espansione islamica|conquista islamica]], dopo la quale si convertirono gradualmente all'Islam, come mostrato dalla «curva di conversione» elaborata da Richard Bulliet.<ref name="Tobin">Tobin, 113-115.</ref>
{{further|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Mar Ammo|Bible translations into Sogdian}}
The Sogdians practiced a variety of religious faiths. However, Zoroastrianism was most likely their main religion, as demonstrated by material evidence, such as the discovery in Samarkand, Panjakent and Er-Kurgan of murals depicting votaries making offerings before fire altars and [[ossuaries]] holding the bones of the dead – in accordance with Zoroastrian ritual. At [[Turfan]], Sogdian burials shared similar features with traditional Chinese practices, yet they still retained essential Zoroastrian rituals, such as [[Tower of Silence|allowing the bodies to be picked clean]] by [[scavenger]]s before burying the bones in ossuaries.<ref name="hansen 2012 p98">Hansen, Valerie (2012), ''The Silk Road: A New History'', Oxford University Press, p. 98, {{ISBN|978-0-19-993921-3}}.</ref> They also [[Animal sacrifice|sacrificed animals]] to Zoroastrian deities, including the supreme deity [[Ahura Mazda]].<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" /> Zoroastrianism remained the dominant religion among Sogdians until after the [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic conquest]], when they gradually converted to Islam, as is shown by Richard Bulliet's "conversion curve".<ref name="Tobin">Tobin 113–115</ref>
OneUna ofdelle thedivinità mostpiù widely worshiped deitiesvenerate in SogdiaSogdiana wasera thela goddessdea [[Nana (Bactrian goddess)|Nana]], derivedderivata fromdalla the Mesopotamiandea goddessmesopotamica [[Nanea|Nanaya]], andtradizionalmente israffigurata traditionallycome depicteduna asdea a 4quattro armedbraccia goddessche ridingcavalca aun lion,leone holdinge thetiene sunil andsole e la moonluna. SheLei ande theil riverdio godfluviale [[Oxus (god)|Oxus]]furono weretra somele ofdivinità thepiù mostattestate widely attested deities from thedella regionregione.<ref>{{Citecita booklibro |last=Shenkar |firstautore=Michael Shenkar | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZ6XCgAAQBAJ |title titolo=Intangible Spirits and Graven Images: The Iconography of Deities in the Pre-Islamic Iranian World |date data=8 Septembersettembre 2014 |publisher editore=BRILL | isbn=978-90-04-28149-3 |language=en}}</ref> SheNana wasera regardedconsiderata asuna adea civiccivica and astrale goddessastrale, ande la hersua sacredcittà citysacra wasera PanjikentPendžikent.
{{Immagine multipla | allinea=right | larghezza totale=400 | immagine1=Dinastia tang, shanxi, straniero dal volto velato, 600-750 ca.JPG | immagine2=Gable of the stone gate of the Tomb of An Jia with reproduction.jpg | sotto='''A sinistra:''' [[Ceramica cinese|statuetta cinese in argilla]] dell'VIII secolo, [[dinastia Tang]], raffigurante un uomo sogdiano con un copricapo distintivo e un velo sul viso, probabilmente un [[Mōbadh|sacerdote zoroastriano]] impegnato in un rituale in un [[Tempio del Fuoco|tempio del fuoco]], poiché i veli venivano usati per evitare di contaminare il fuoco sacro con il respiro o la saliva; [[Museo d'arte orientale (Torino)|Museo d'Arte Orientale (Torino)]], Italia.<ref>{{cita web | autore=Lee Lawrence | data=3 settembre 2011 | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111904332804576540533071105892 | titolo=A Mysterious Stranger in China | sito=[[The Wall Street Journal]] | accesso=31 agosto 2016}}</ref><br/>'''A destra:''' una cerimonia di culto del fuoco zoroastriana, raffigurata sulla tomba di Anjia, un mercante sogdiano in Cina.<ref>{{cita pubblicazione | autore=Xu Jin | titolo=The Funerary Couch of An Jia and the Art of Sogdian Immigrants in Sixth-century China | rivista=The Burlington Magazine | data=1 gernnaio 2019 | p=824 | url=https://www.academia.edu/40962371}}</ref>}}
I testi religiosi sogdiani trovati in Cina e risalenti alle [[Dinastie del Nord e del Sud#Nord|dinastie Settentrionali]], [[Dinastia Sui|Sui]] e Tang sono per lo più buddhisti (tradotti da fonti cinesi), manichei e [[Nestorianesimo|cristiani nestoriani]], con solo una piccola minoranza di testi zoroastriani.<ref name="Grenet">{{cita pubblicazione | autore=Frantz Grenet | titolo=Religious Diversity among Sogdian Merchants in Sixth-Century China: Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Manichaeism, and Hinduism | rivista=Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East | volume=27 | numero=2 | anno=2007 | editore=Duke University Press | pp=463-478 | doi=10.1215/1089201x-2007-017}}</ref> Tuttavia, le tombe di mercanti sogdiani in Cina, datate all'ultimo terzo del VI secolo, mostrano prevalentemente motivi zoroastriani o sincretismi zoroastriano-manichei, mentre i resti archeologici della Sogdiana appaiono ampiamente iranici e conservativamente zoroastriani.<ref name="Grenet"/>
I Sogdiani incarnavano però la pluralità religiosa tipica delle rotte commerciali. Il corpo più numeroso di testi sogdiani è buddhista, e i Sogdiani furono tra i principali traduttori di sutra buddhisti in cinese. Tuttavia, il buddhismo non mise mai radici profonde nella stessa Sogdiana.<ref>{{cita libro | autore=A. M. Belenitskii e B. I. Marshak | anno=1981 | capitolo=Part One: the Paintings of Sogdiana | curatore=Guitty Azarpay | titolo=Sogdian Painting: the Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art | città=Berkeley, Los Angeles, Londra | editore=University of California Press | p=35 | isbn=0-520-03765-0}}</ref> Inoltre, il monastero di Bulayiq a nord di Turfan conservava testi cristiani sogdiani, e numerosi testi manichei sogdiani sono stati rinvenuti a Qocho.<ref>{{cita pubblicazione | autore=J. Rose | capitolo=The Sogdians: Prime Movers between Boundaries | rivista=Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East | volume=30 | numero=3 | anno=2010 | pp=416-7}}</ref> La riconversione dei Sogdiani dal buddhismo allo zoroastrismo coincise con l'adozione ufficiale dello zoroastrismo da parte dell'Impero sasanide.<ref name="liu 2001 p168"/> Dal IV secolo in poi, pellegrini buddhisti sogdiani lasciarono tracce del loro passaggio lungo le ripide scogliere del fiume [[Indo]] e della [[Valle dello Hunza|valle di Hunza]], dove scolpirono immagini del [[Buddha]] e [[stupa]] sacri, oltre ai loro nomi completi, sperando di ottenere la protezione del Buddha.<ref>{{cita libro | autore=Xinru Liu | anno=2010 | titolo=The Silk Road in World History | città=Oxford e New York | editore=Oxford University Press | pp=67-8}}</ref>
{{multiple image| align = right |total_width=400 | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = '''Left''': An 8th-century [[Tang dynasty]] [[Chinese ceramics|Chinese clay figurine]] of a Sogdian man wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, a probable [[Mobad|Zoroastrian priest]] engaging in a ritual at a [[fire temple]], since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva; [[Museum of Oriental Art (Turin)]], Italy.<ref>Lee Lawrence. (3 September 2011). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111904332804576540533071105892 "A Mysterious Stranger in China"]. ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. Retrieved 31 August 2016.</ref><br /> '''Right''': A Zoroastrian fire worship ceremony, depicted on the [[Tomb of Anjia]], a Sogdian merchant in China.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=Xu 徐津 |title=The Funerary Couch of An Jia and the Art of Sogdian Immigrants in Sixth-century China |journal=The Burlington Magazine |date=1 January 2019 |page=824 |url=https://www.academia.edu/40962371}}</ref>| footer_align = left | image1 = Dinastia tang, shanxi, straniero dal volto velato, 600-750 ca.JPG| image2 = Gable of the stone gate of the Tomb of An Jia with reproduction.jpg}}
The Sogdian religious texts found in China and dating to the [[Northern and Southern dynasties#The Northern dynasties|Northern dynasties]], [[Sui dynasty|Sui]], and Tang are mostly Buddhist (translated from Chinese sources), Manichaean, and [[Nestorian Christian]], with only a small minority of Zoroastrian texts.<ref name="Grenet">{{cite journal|last=Grenet |first=Frantz |title=Religious Diversity among Sogdian Merchants in Sixth-Century China: Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Manichaeism, and Hinduism | journal=Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East |volume=27 |issue=2 |year=2007 |publisher=Duke University Press |pages=463–478 |doi=10.1215/1089201x-2007-017|s2cid=144300435 }}</ref> But, tombs of Sogdian merchants in China dated to the last third of the 6th century show predominantly Zoroastrian motifs or Zoroastrian-Manichaean syncretism, while archaeological remains from Sogdiana appear fairly Iranian and conservatively Zoroastrian.<ref name="Grenet" />
TheI SogdiansSogdiani alsopraticavano practicedanche Manichaeismil manicheismo, thela faithfede ofdi [[Mani ( prophetteologo)|Mani]], whichche theydiffusero spreadtra amonggli the UyghursUiguri. TheIl [[ UyghurKhaganato Khaganateuiguro]] ( 744–840744-840 ADd.C.) developedsviluppò closestretti tieslegami tocon Tangla ChinaCina onceTang itdopo hadaver aidedaiutato thei Tang ina suppressingsopprimere thela rebellionribellione ofdi An Lushan ande hisdel Göktürksuo successorsuccessore göktürk [[Shi Siming ]], establishingstabilendo anun annualcommercio tradeannuale relationshipdi ofun onemilione milliondi boltsrotoli ofdi Chineseseta silkcinese forin onecambio hundreddi thousandcentomila horsescavalli.<ref name="liu 2001 p169"> Liu,{{cita libro | autore=Xinru , "Liu | capitolo=The Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Interactions in Eurasia ", in| ''titolo=Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History '', ed.| curatore=Michael Adas , American| Historicalcittà=Filadelfia Association, Philadelphia:| editore=Temple University Press , | anno=2001 , | p . =169 .}}</ref> TheGli UyghursUiguri reliedsi onaffidarono Sogdianai merchantsmercanti tosogdiani sellper muchvendere ofgran thisparte silkdi furtherquesta westseta alongverso theoccidente Silklungo Roadla Via della Seta, aun symbioticrapporto relationshipsimbiotico thatche ledportò manymolti UyghursUiguri toad adoptadottare [[Chineseil Manichaeism|Manichaeismmanicheismo fromdai the Sogdians]]Sogdiani.<ref name="liu 2001 p169" /> HoweverTuttavia, evidencele ofprove Manichaeandi liturgicaltesti andliturgici canonicale textscanonici ofmanichei Sogdiandi originorigine remainssogdiana fragmentarysono andframmentarie sparsee comparedscarse torispetto theiral vasto corpus ofdi Buddhistscritti writingsbuddhisti.<ref> Dresden,{{cita libro | autore=Mark J. (Dresden | anno=2003 ), "| capitolo=Sogdian Language and Literature ", in| curatore=Ehsan Yarshater , ''| titolo=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods '', | città=Cambridge : | editore=Cambridge University Press , p.| p=1224 , {{ISBN| isbn=0-521-24699-7}} .</ref> TheGli UyghursUiguri werepraticavano alsoanche followers ofil Buddhismbuddhismo. ForAd instanceesempio, theynelle can be seen wearing silk robes in thescene ''praṇidhi'' scenesdei ofmurali thebuddhisti uiguri di [[ BezeklikGrotte Thousanddei mille Buddha Caves|Uyghurdi Bezeklik Buddhist murals|Bezeklik]] of (Xinjiang, ChinaCina), particularlysi vedono SceneUiguri con abiti di seta, in particolare nella scena 6 fromdel TempleTempio 9 , che showingraffigura [[:File:BezeklikSogdianMerchants.jpg| Sogdiandonatori donorssogdiani to theal Buddha]].<ref name="gasparini 2014 pp134-163"> Gasparini,{{cita pubblicazione | autore=Mariachiara . "[Gasparini | url=http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 | titolo=A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin ]", in| curatore=Rudolf G. Wagner ande Monica Juneja (eds),| ''rivista=Transcultural Studies '', | editore=Ruprecht-Karls Universität Heidelberg , No| numero=1 (| anno=2014 ), pp| 134–163pp=134-163}}</ref><ref>{{ citecita pubblicazione journal| url=http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 | title titolo=A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin | journal rivista=Transcultural Studies | date data=3 Januarygennaio 2014 | volume=1 | issue numero=2014 | doi=10.11588/ts.2014.1.12313 | access-date accesso=25 Julyluglio 2017 |last1=Gasparini | first1 autore=Mariachiara Gasparini}}</ref> ▼However, the Sogdians epitomized the religious plurality found along the trade routes. The largest body of Sogdian texts are Buddhist, and Sogdians were among the principal translators of Buddhist sutras into Chinese. However, Buddhism did not take root in Sogdiana itself.<ref>A. M. Belenitskii and B. I. Marshak (1981), "Part One: the Paintings of Sogdiana" in Guitty Azarpay, ''Sogdian Painting: the Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art'', Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, p. 35, {{ISBN|0-520-03765-0}}.</ref> Additionally, the [[Bulayiq]] monastery to the north of Turpan contained Sogdian Christian texts, and there are numerous Manichaean texts in Sogdiana from nearby Qocho.<ref>J. Rose, 'The Sogdians: Prime Movers between Boundaries', ''Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East'', vol. 30, no. 3 (2010), pp. 416–7</ref> The reconversion of Sogdians from Buddhism to Zoroastrianism coincided with the adoption of Zoroastrianism by the Sassanid Empire of Persia.<ref name="liu 2001 p168" /> From the 4th century onwards, Sogdian Buddhist pilgrims left behind evidence of their travels along the steep cliffs of the [[Indus River]] and [[Hunza Valley]]. It was here that they carved images of the [[Buddha]] and holy [[stupa]]s in addition to their full names, in hopes that the Buddha would grant them his protection.<ref>Liu, Xinru (2010), ''The Silk Road in World History'', Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, p 67–8.</ref>
[[File:Shiva with Trisula Panjikent 7th–8th century CE Hermitage Museum.jpg|thumb|left|[[ Siva (divinità)|Shiva]] ( withcon il ''[[ Triśūla|trisula]] ''), attendedassistito byda Sogdiandevoti devoteessogdiani. [[Penjikent murals|Penjikent]]Pendžikent, 7th–8thVII-VIII centurysecolo ADd.C. Museo dell'[[ Hermitage MuseumErmitage]].]] ▼InOltre addition toai [[ PuranasPurāṇa| Puranicculti cultspuranici]], theresi weresa fiveche [[Hinduin deities]]Sogdiana knownfurono tovenerate havecinque been[[divinità worshipped in Sogdiana.induiste]]:<ref name="kumar 2007 p8" /> These were [[ Brama (divinità)|Brahma]], [[Indra]], [[ ShivaSiva (divinità)|Mahadeva]] (Shiva), [[ Nārāyaṇa|Narayana]] , ande [[ Vaiśravaṇa|Vaishravana]] ;. theLe godsdivinità Brahma, Indra , ande Shiva wereerano knownconosciute bycon theiri Sogdiannomi namessogdiani Zravan, Adbad ande Veshparkar, respectivelyrispettivamente. ,<ref name="kumar 2007 p8" /> In Asun'affresco seendell'VIII insecolo andi 8th-century mural from PanjakentPendžikent, portablepiccoli [[ fireTempio del Fuoco|altari portatili del altarfuoco]] s cansono be«associati» "associated"con with [[Mahadeva (Buddhism)|Mahadeva]]-Veshparkar, Brahma-Zravan , ande Indra-Abdab, according tosecondo Braja Bihārī Kumar.<ref name="kumar 2007 p8"> {{cita libro | autore=Braja Bihārī Kumar (| anno=2007 ). "| capitolo=India and Central Asia: Links and Interactions ", in| curatore=J. N. Roy ande B. B. Kumar (eds),| ''titolo=India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods '', 3–33.| p=8 New| città=Nuova Delhi : Published for| editore=Astha Bharati Concept Publishing Company . {{ISBN| isbn=81-8069-457-7}} , p. 8.</ref> ▼
AmongTra thei Sogdiancristiani Christianssogdiani knownnoti in ChinaCina, fromsecondo inscriptionsiscrizioni ande testi, textsvi wereerano An Yena, acristiano Christianproveniente fromda An country ( BukharaBuchara) .; Mi Jifen , a Christiancristiano fromda Mi country (Maymurgh) ,; Kang Zhitong, achierico Sogdiancristiano Christiansogdiano cleric fromda Kang country ( SamarkandSamarcanda) ,; Mi Xuanqing a Sogdian Christian cleric from Mi country (Maymurgh),e Mi Xuanying, achierici Sogdiancristiani Christiansogdiani cleric fromda Mi country (Maymurgh) ,; e An Qingsu, amonaco Sogdiancristiano Christiansogdiano monk fromda An country ( BukharaBuchara).<ref>{{ citecita booklibro | last autore= Matteo Nicolini-Zani | first curatore= Li Mattco |editor1-last=Tang |editor1-first=Lie |editor2-last=Winkler |editor2-first=Dietmar W. Winkler | date anno=2013 | title= titolo=From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VYaMuV3N5vUC&pg=PA151 | publisher= editore=LIT Verlag Münster | edition= illustrated |isbn=978-3-643-90329-7 }}</ref><ref>{{ citecita booklibro | author= autore=S.V.D. Research Institute, Monumenta Serica Institute | date anno=2009 | title= titolo=Monumenta Serica: Journal of Oriental Studies, Volume 57 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NzxDAQAAIAAJ&q=yena+sogdian+name | quote citazione= La Theprima firstè onel'iscrizione isfuneraria thedi funeraryun inscriptionaltro ofcristiano anotherdi Bukharan ChristianBuchara, whomorto dieddurante during thel'era Jinglong JptH era ( 707–710707-710) ina Guilin ££^, southernnella ChinaCina meridionale, andil whosecui namenome wasera An Yena ^Wffi ( seevedi Jiang Boqin , 1994). TheLa secondseconda isè thel'epitaffio epitaphdel ofgentiluomo the Sogdian gentlemansogdiano Mi Jifen ^Iffi^ ( 714–805714-805) fromoriginario di Maymurgh; innello hisstudio studydi Ge Chengyong hassi discoveredè thatscoperto che il figlio di Mi 's sonera wasun amonaco Christiancristiano monke andche, thatquindi, hisanche familyla wassua thereforefamiglia mostera probablymolto Christian,probabilmente toocristiana ( seevedi Ge Chengyong , 2001). GenerallyIn generale [... ] | publisher editore=H. Vetch | page p=120 }}</ref><ref>{{ citecita booklibro | last autore= Matteo Nicolini-Zani | first= Matteo |dateanno=2006 | title= titolo=La via radiosa per l'Oriente: i testi e la storia del primo incontro del cristianesimo con il mondo culturale e religioso cinese (secoli VII-IX) | series= serie=Spiritualità orientale | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xhYQAQAAIAAJ&q=yena+sogdian | quote citazione= [... ] di almeno un testo cristiano in cinese, il rotolo P. 3847, contenente la traduzione cinese dell'inno siriaco ''Gloria in excelsis Deo '', di cui fu redatta anche una traduzione sogdiana (giunta a noi in frammenti) a Bulayìq (Turfan). L'unico elemento che ci conferma, infine, una assai probabile presenza cristiana in quest'epoca nel sud della Cina, legata ai commerci marittimi, è il ritrovamento presso Guilin (odierno Guangxi) dell'epitaffio funebre del cristiano An Yena, morto tra il 707 e il 709. | publisher editore=Edizioni Qiqajon, Comunità di Bose | page p=121 | isbn=88-8227-212-5 }}</ref> ▼▲The Sogdians also practiced Manichaeism, the faith of [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]], which they spread among the Uyghurs. The [[Uyghur Khaganate]] (744–840 AD) developed close ties to Tang China once it had aided the Tang in suppressing the rebellion of An Lushan and his Göktürk successor [[Shi Siming]], establishing an annual trade relationship of one million bolts of Chinese silk for one hundred thousand horses.<ref name="liu 2001 p169">Liu, Xinru, "The Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Interactions in Eurasia", in ''Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History'', ed. Michael Adas, American Historical Association, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001, p. 169.</ref> The Uyghurs relied on Sogdian merchants to sell much of this silk further west along the Silk Road, a symbiotic relationship that led many Uyghurs to adopt [[Chinese Manichaeism|Manichaeism from the Sogdians]].<ref name="liu 2001 p169" /> However, evidence of Manichaean liturgical and canonical texts of Sogdian origin remains fragmentary and sparse compared to their corpus of Buddhist writings.<ref>Dresden, Mark J. (2003), "Sogdian Language and Literature", in Ehsan Yarshater, ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 1224, {{ISBN|0-521-24699-7}}.</ref> The Uyghurs were also followers of Buddhism. For instance, they can be seen wearing silk robes in the ''praṇidhi'' scenes of the [[Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves|Uyghur Bezeklik Buddhist murals]] of Xinjiang, China, particularly Scene 6 from Temple 9 showing [[:File:BezeklikSogdianMerchants.jpg|Sogdian donors to the Buddha]].<ref name="gasparini 2014 pp134-163">Gasparini, Mariachiara. "[http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin]", in Rudolf G. Wagner and Monica Juneja (eds), ''Transcultural Studies'', Ruprecht-Karls Universität Heidelberg, No 1 (2014), pp 134–163</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 |title=A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin |journal=Transcultural Studies |date=3 January 2014 |volume=1 |issue=2014 |doi=10.11588/ts.2014.1.12313 |access-date=25 July 2017|last1=Gasparini |first1=Mariachiara }}</ref>
[[File:Bezeklik caves, Pranidhi scene 14, temple 9.JPG|thumb|Scena di ''praṇidhi'', tempio 9 (Grotta 20) delle [[Grotte dei Mille Buddha di Bezeklik]], [[Turfan]], [[Xinjiang]], Cina, IX secolo d.C., con figure inginocchiate dai tratti [[Europoide|caucasici]] e [[Colore degli occhi#Occhi verdi|occhi verdi]] che pregano davanti al Buddha. La ricerca moderna ha identificato le [[:File:BezeklikSogdianMerchants.jpg|scene di ''praṇidhi'' dello stesso tempio]] (n. 9) come raffigurazioni di Sogdiani,<ref name="gasparini 2014 pp134-163"/> che abitavano Turfan come minoranza etnica durante le fasi di dominio cinese [[Dinastia Tang|Tang]] (VII-VIII secolo) e uiguro (IX-XIII secolo).<ref name="hansen 2012 p98"/>]]
WhenDurante visitingla [[Yuan-era]]sua visita a [[Zhenjiang]] , ([[Jiangsu]], ChinaCina) duringnell'ultima theparte latedel 13thXIII centurysecolo, thel'esploratore e mercante [[ Venice|Venetianvenezia]] explorer and merchantno [[Marco Polo]] notednotò thatche [[Europeansvi inerano Medievalstate China|acostruite large number]] ofnumerose [[ ChristianChiesa church(comunità)|chiese cristiane]] es. hadLa beensua builtaffermazione there.è Hisconfermata claimda isun confirmedtesto bycinese adel ChineseXIV textsecolo, ofche theracconta 14thcome centuryun explainingsogdiano howdi a Sogdian namednome Mar-Sargis , fromoriginario Samarkanddi foundedSamarcanda, sixavesse [[Churchfondato ofsei thechiese Eastcristiane innestoriane China|Nestoriana ChristianZhenjiang churches]]e there,una in addition to one ina [[Hangzhou]] duringnella theseconda secondmetà halfdel ofXIII the 13th centurysecolo.<ref> Emmerick,{{cita libro | autore=R. E. (Emmerick | anno=2003 ) "| capitolo=Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs ", in| curatore=Ehsan Yarshater , ''| titolo=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods '', | città=Cambridge : | editore=Cambridge University Press , pp| p=275 .}}</ref> NestorianIl Christianitycristianesimo hadnestoriano existedera già presente in ChinaCina earlierdurante duringla thedinastia Tang , dynastyquando whenil a Persian monkmonaco namedpersiano [[Alopen]] camegiunse toa Chang'an innel 653 toper [[ proselytizeProselitismo|predicare]], ascome describeddescritto in aun'iscrizione dualbilingue Chinese(cinese ande [[ SyriacLingua languagesiriaca|siriaca]] ) inscription fromdi Chang'an ( modernoggi Xi'an), dateddatata to the yearal 781.<ref> Emmerick,{{cita libro | autore=R. E. (Emmerick | anno=2003 ) "| capitolo=Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs ", in| curatore=Ehsan Yarshater , ''| titolo=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods '', | città=Cambridge : | editore=Cambridge University Press , pp| p=274 .}}</ref> WithinNell'iscrizione thesiriaca Syriacè inscriptionriportato isun aelenco listdi ofsacerdoti priestse and monksmonaci, onetra ofcui whomuno isdi namednome Gabriel, the [[ archdeaconarcidiacono]] ofdi "«Xumdan "» ande "«Sarag "», thei Sogdiannomi namessogdiani forper the Chinesele capitalcapitali citiescinesi [[Chang'an]] ande [[Luoyang]] , respectively.<ref> Emmerick,{{cita libro | autore=R. E. (Emmerick | anno=2003 ) "| capitolo=Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs ", in| curatore=Ehsan Yarshater , ''| titolo=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods '', | città=Cambridge : | editore=Cambridge University Press , | pp 274–5.=274-75}}</ref> InI regardspiù toantichi textual material, the earliest Christiantesti [[ gospelVangelo|evangelici]] textscristiani [[Bibletradotti translationsin intosogdiano Sogdian|translatedrisalgono intoal Sogdian]]regno coincidedel withsovrano the reign of the Sasanian Persian monarchsasanide [[ Yazdgard II|Yazdegerd II]] (r. 438–457438-457) , ande werefurono translatedtradotti from thedalla ''[[Peshitta]]'', thela versione standard version of thedella [[ BibleBibbia]] innel [[ Syriaccristianesimo Christianitysiriaco]].<ref> Dresden,{{cita libro | autore=Mark J. (Dresden | anno=2003 ), "| capitolo=Sogdian Language and Literature ", in| curatore=Ehsan Yarshater , ''| titolo=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods '', | città=Cambridge : | editore=Cambridge University Press , | pp =1225-1226 1225–1226, {{ISBN| isbn=0-521-24699-7}} .</ref> ▼▲[[File:Shiva with Trisula Panjikent 7th–8th century CE Hermitage Museum.jpg|thumb|left|[[Shiva]] (with [[trisula]]), attended by Sogdian devotees. [[Penjikent murals|Penjikent]], 7th–8th century AD. [[Hermitage Museum]].]]
▲In addition to [[Puranas|Puranic cults]], there were five [[Hindu deities]] known to have been worshipped in Sogdiana.<ref name="kumar 2007 p8" /> These were [[Brahma]], [[Indra]], [[Shiva|Mahadeva]] (Shiva), [[Narayana]], and [[Vaishravana]]; the gods Brahma, Indra, and Shiva were known by their Sogdian names Zravan, Adbad and Veshparkar, respectively.,<ref name="kumar 2007 p8" /> As seen in an 8th-century mural from Panjakent, portable [[fire altar]]s can be "associated" with [[Mahadeva (Buddhism)|Mahadeva]]-Veshparkar, Brahma-Zravan, and Indra-Abdab, according to Braja Bihārī Kumar.<ref name="kumar 2007 p8">Braja Bihārī Kumar (2007). "India and Central Asia: Links and Interactions", in J.N. Roy and B.B. Kumar (eds), ''India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods'', 3–33. New Delhi: Published for Astha Bharati Concept Publishing Company. {{ISBN|81-8069-457-7}}, p. 8.</ref>
▲Among the Sogdian Christians known in China from inscriptions and texts were An Yena, a Christian from An country (Bukhara). Mi Jifen a Christian from Mi country (Maymurgh), Kang Zhitong, a Sogdian Christian cleric from Kang country (Samarkand), Mi Xuanqing a Sogdian Christian cleric from Mi country (Maymurgh), Mi Xuanying, a Sogdian Christian cleric from Mi country (Maymurgh), An Qingsu, a Sogdian Christian monk from An country (Bukhara).<ref>{{cite book |last=Nicolini-Zani |first= Mattco |editor1-last=Tang |editor1-first=Li |editor2-last=Winkler |editor2-first=Dietmar W. |date=2013 |title= From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VYaMuV3N5vUC&pg=PA151 |publisher= LIT Verlag Münster |edition= illustrated |isbn=978-3-643-90329-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= S.V.D. Research Institute, Monumenta Serica Institute |date=2009 |title= Monumenta Serica: Journal of Oriental Studies, Volume 57 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NzxDAQAAIAAJ&q=yena+sogdian+name |quote= The first one is the funerary inscription of another Bukharan Christian, who died during the Jinglong JptH era (707–710) in Guilin ££^, southern China, and whose name was An Yena^Wffi (see Jiang Boqin 1994). The second is the epitaph of the Sogdian gentleman Mi Jifen ^Iffi^ (714–805) from Maymurgh; in his study Ge Chengyong has discovered that Mi's son was a Christian monk and that his family was therefore most probably Christian, too (see Ge Chengyong 2001). Generally ... |publisher=H. Vetch |page=120 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Nicolini-Zani |first= Matteo |date=2006 |title= La via radiosa per l'Oriente: i testi e la storia del primo incontro del cristianesimo con il mondo culturale e religioso cinese (secoli VII-IX) |series= Spiritualità orientale |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xhYQAQAAIAAJ&q=yena+sogdian |quote=... di almeno un testo cristiano in cinese, il rotolo P. 3847, contenente la traduzione cinese dell'inno siriaco Gloria in excelsis Deo, di cui fu redatta anche una traduzione sogdiana(giunta a noi in frammenti) a Bulayìq (Turfan). L'unico elemento che ci conferma, infine, una assai probabile presenza cristiana in quest'epoca nel sud della Cina, legata ai commerci marittimi, è il ritrovamento presso Guilin (odierno Guangxi) dell'epitaffio funebre del cristiano An Yena, morto tra il 707 e il 709. |publisher=Edizioni Qiqajon, Comunità di Bose |page=121 |isbn=88-8227-212-5 }}</ref>
[[File:Bezeklik caves, Pranidhi scene 14, temple 9.JPG|thumb|Pranidhi scene, temple 9 (Cave 20) of the [[Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves]], [[Turfan]], [[Xinjiang]], China, 9th century AD, with kneeling figures with [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]] features and [[Green-eyed|green eyes]] praying in front of the Buddha. Modern scholarship has identified [[:File:BezeklikSogdianMerchants.jpg|''praṇidhi'' scenes of the same temple]] (No. 9) as depicting Sogdians,<ref name="gasparini 2014 pp134-163" /> who inhabited Turfan as an ethnic minority during the phases of [[Tang dynasty|Tang Chinese]] (7th–8th century) and [[Kingdom of Qocho|Uyghur rule]] (9th–13th century).<ref name="hansen 2012 p98" />]]
▲When visiting [[Yuan-era]] [[Zhenjiang]], [[Jiangsu]], China during the late 13th century, the [[Venice|Venetian]] explorer and merchant [[Marco Polo]] noted that [[Europeans in Medieval China|a large number]] of [[Christian church]]es had been built there. His claim is confirmed by a Chinese text of the 14th century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar-Sargis from Samarkand founded six [[Church of the East in China|Nestorian Christian churches]] there, in addition to one in [[Hangzhou]] during the second half of the 13th century.<ref>Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater, ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 275.</ref> Nestorian Christianity had existed in China earlier during the Tang dynasty when a Persian monk named [[Alopen]] came to Chang'an in 653 to [[proselytize]], as described in a dual Chinese and [[Syriac language]] inscription from Chang'an (modern Xi'an), dated to the year 781.<ref>Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater, ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 274.</ref> Within the Syriac inscription is a list of priests and monks, one of whom is named Gabriel, the [[archdeacon]] of "Xumdan" and "Sarag", the Sogdian names for the Chinese capital cities [[Chang'an]] and [[Luoyang]], respectively.<ref>Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater, ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 274–5.</ref> In regards to textual material, the earliest Christian [[gospel]] texts [[Bible translations into Sogdian|translated into Sogdian]] coincide with the reign of the Sasanian Persian monarch [[Yazdegerd II]] (r. 438–457), and were translated from the ''[[Peshitta]]'', the standard version of the [[Bible]] in [[Syriac Christianity]].<ref>Dresden, Mark J. (2003), "Sogdian Language and Literature", in Ehsan Yarshater, ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 1225–1226, {{ISBN|0-521-24699-7}}.</ref>
==Slave trade ==
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