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Durante la sua visita a [[Zhenjiang]] ([[Jiangsu]], Cina) nell'ultima parte del XIII secolo, l'esploratore e mercante [[venezia]]no [[Marco Polo]] notò che vi erano state costruite numerose [[Chiesa (comunità)|chiese cristiane]]. La sua affermazione è confermata da un testo cinese del XIV secolo, che racconta come un sogdiano di nome Mar-Sargis, originario di Samarcanda, avesse fondato sei chiese cristiane nestoriane a Zhenjiang e una a [[Hangzhou]] nella seconda metà del XIII secolo.<ref>{{cita libro | autore=R. E. Emmerick | anno=2003 | capitolo=Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs | curatore=Ehsan Yarshater | titolo=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods | città=Cambridge | editore=Cambridge University Press | p=275}}</ref> Il cristianesimo nestoriano era già presente in Cina durante la dinastia Tang, quando il monaco persiano [[Alopen]] giunse a Chang'an nel 653 per [[Proselitismo|predicare]], come descritto in un'iscrizione bilingue (cinese e [[Lingua siriaca|siriaca]]) di Chang'an (oggi Xi'an), datata al 781.<ref>{{cita libro | autore=R. E. Emmerick | anno=2003 | capitolo=Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs | curatore=Ehsan Yarshater | titolo=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods | città=Cambridge | editore=Cambridge University Press | p=274}}</ref> Nell'iscrizione siriaca è riportato un elenco di sacerdoti e monaci, tra cui uno di nome Gabriel, [[arcidiacono]] di «Xumdan» e «Sarag», i nomi sogdiani per le capitali cinesi [[Chang'an]] e [[Luoyang]].<ref>{{cita libro | autore=R. E. Emmerick | anno=2003 | capitolo=Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs | curatore=Ehsan Yarshater | titolo=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods | città=Cambridge | editore=Cambridge University Press | pp=274-75}}</ref> I più antichi testi [[Vangelo|evangelici]] cristiani tradotti in sogdiano risalgono al regno del sovrano sasanide [[Yazdgard II|Yazdegerd II]] (r. 438-457) e furono tradotti dalla ''[[Peshitta]]'', la versione standard della [[Bibbia]] nel [[cristianesimo siriaco]].<ref>{{cita libro | autore=Mark J. Dresden | anno=2003 | capitolo=Sogdian Language and Literature | curatore=Ehsan Yarshater | titolo=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods | città=Cambridge | editore=Cambridge University Press | pp=1225-1226 | isbn=0-521-24699-7}}</ref>
== Commercio di schiavi ==
==Slave trade ==
La [[ SlaverySchiavismo|schiavitù]] existedesisteva in ChinaCina sincefin ancientdai timestempi antichi, althoughanche duringse thedurante Hanla dynastydinastia theHan proportionla ofproporzione slavesdi toschiavi therispetto overallalla populationpopolazione wascomplessiva roughlyera circa dell'1%,<ref> Hulsewé,{{cita libro | autore=A. F. P. (Hulsewé | anno=1986 ). "| capitolo=Ch'in and Han law ", in| titolo=The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 520–544 . Edited by| curatore=Denis Twitchett ande Michael Loewe . | città=Cambridge : | editore=Cambridge University Press , | pp =524-525 524–525,| {{ISBN|isbn=0-521-24327-0}} .</ref> farmolto lowerinferiore thanalla thestima estimateper foril themondo contemporary [[Grecogreco- Romanromano world]]contemporaneo ( estimatedstimato atal 15% ofdell'intera [[Demography of the Roman Empire|the entire population]]popolazione).<ref> Hucker,{{cita libro | autore=Charles O. (Hucker | anno=1975 ). ''| titolo=China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture ''. | città=Stanford : | editore=Stanford University Press , | p . =177 , {{ISBN| isbn=0-8047-0887-8}} .</ref><ref> For{{cita specificlibro figures| inautore=Bruce regards to percentage of the population being enslaved, seeW. Frier , Bruce| W. (anno=2000 ). "| capitolo=Demography ", in| curatore=Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey , ande Dominic Rathbone (eds),| ''titolo=The Cambridge Ancient History XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192 ''. | città=Cambridge : | editore=Cambridge University Press , | pp 827–54.=827-54}}</ref> DuringDurante theil periodo Tang period, slavesagli wereschiavi notnon allowedera topermesso marrysposare auna commoner'sfiglia daughter,di werecomuni notcittadini, allowedné toavere haverapporti sexualsessuali relationscon withalcuna anydonna femaledella memberfamiglia ofdel theirpadrone. master'sSebbene family,il andcodice althoughdi fornicationlegge withTang femalevietasse slavesla wasfornicazione forbiddencon inschiave, thetale [[Tangpratica Code|Tangera codemolto of law]], it was widely practiceddiffusa.<ref> {{cita libro | autore=Anders Hansson (| anno=1996 ), ''| titolo=Chinese Outcasts: Discrimination and Emancipation in Late Imperial China '', Leiden| città=Leida, New York, Koln:Colonia | editore=E.J. Brill , | pp =38-39 38–39,| {{ISBN|isbn=90-04-10596-4}} .</ref> La [[ Manumissionmanomissione]] wasera alsoconsentita permittedse whenuna aschiava slavepartoriva womanun gavefiglio birthdel to her master's sonpadrone, whichil allowedche forle herpermetteva elevationdi toelevarsi thelegalmente legalallo statusstato ofdi acomune commonercittadina, yetma shepoteva couldvivere onlysolo live as acome [[ concubineConcubinato|concubina]] ande notnon ascome themoglie wifedell'ex of her former masterpadrone.<ref> {{cita libro | autore=Anders Hansson (| anno=1996 ), ''| titolo=Chinese Outcasts: Discrimination and Emancipation in Late Imperial China '', Leiden| città=Leida, New York, Koln:Colonia | editore=E.J. Brill , | p . =39 , {{ISBN| isbn=90-04-10596-4}} .</ref> ▼
{{further|History of slavery in China|Iranians in China}}
[[File:Contract written in Sogdian for the purchase of a slave in 639 CE, Astana Tomb No. 135.jpg|thumb|left| ContractContratto writtenredatto in Sogdiansogdiano forper thel'acquisto purchasedi ofuno aschiavo slave innel 639 CEd.C., [[ Tombe di Astana |Tomba Tombdi Astana]] Non. 135.<ref>{{ citecita journalpubblicazione | last1=Pei |first1autore=Chengguo Pei | title titolo=The Silk Road and the Economy of Gaochang: Evidence on the Circulation of Silver Coins | journal rivista=The Silk Road | date anno=2017 | volume=15 | page p=40 | url=http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol15/srjournal_v15.pdf | archive-url urlarchivio=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517030834/http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol15/srjournal_v15.pdf | archive-date=17 May 2021 |url-statusurlmorto= liveno}}</ref>]] ▼▲[[Slavery]] existed in China since ancient times, although during the Han dynasty the proportion of slaves to the overall population was roughly 1%,<ref>Hulsewé, A.F.P. (1986). "Ch'in and Han law", in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 520–544. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 524–525, {{ISBN|0-521-24327-0}}.</ref> far lower than the estimate for the contemporary [[Greco-Roman world]] (estimated at 15% of [[Demography of the Roman Empire|the entire population]]).<ref>Hucker, Charles O. (1975). ''China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 177, {{ISBN|0-8047-0887-8}}.</ref><ref>For specific figures in regards to percentage of the population being enslaved, see Frier, Bruce W. (2000). "Demography", in Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone (eds), ''The Cambridge Ancient History XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 827–54.</ref> During the Tang period, slaves were not allowed to marry a commoner's daughter, were not allowed to have sexual relations with any female member of their master's family, and although fornication with female slaves was forbidden in the [[Tang Code|Tang code of law]], it was widely practiced.<ref>Anders Hansson (1996), ''Chinese Outcasts: Discrimination and Emancipation in Late Imperial China'', Leiden, New York, Koln: E.J. Brill, pp 38–39, {{ISBN|90-04-10596-4}}.</ref> [[Manumission]] was also permitted when a slave woman gave birth to her master's son, which allowed for her elevation to the legal status of a commoner, yet she could only live as a [[concubine]] and not as the wife of her former master.<ref>Anders Hansson (1996), ''Chinese Outcasts: Discrimination and Emancipation in Late Imperial China'', Leiden, New York, Koln: E.J. Brill, p. 39, {{ISBN|90-04-10596-4}}.</ref>
SogdianI andmercanti Chinesesogdiani merchantse regularlycinesi tradedcommerciavano inregolarmente slavesschiavi ina andTurpan arounde Turpandintorni duringdurante thela dinastia Tang dynasty. [[Turpan]] , undersotto il [[ Dinastia Tang |dominio dynastyTang]] , ruleera wasun acentro centerdi ofgrande majorattività commercialcommerciale activitytra betweenmercanti Chinesecinesi and [[Sogdian people|Sogdian]]e merchantssogdiani. ThereVi wereerano manymolte innslocande ine Turpan.alcune Someoffrivano providedl'opportunità Sogdiana sexlavoratrici workerssessuali withsogdiane andi opportunityservire toi servicemercanti thedella [[ SilkVia Roaddella Seta]] merchants, sincedato theche officialle historiescronache reportufficiali thatriportano therel'esistenza weredi marketsmercati indi womendonne ata [[Kucha]] ande [[Khotan]].<ref>Xin Tangshu , 221a:6230. </ref> InUn addition, [[Susan Whitfield]] offers a fictionalized account of a Kuchean courtesan's experiencescontratto in thelingua 9thsogdiana centuryritrovato without providing any sources, although she has clearly drawn on the description of the prostitutes' quarter innel [[ Chang'an]]Tombe indi Beilizhi;Astana|cimitero Whitfield,di 1999, pp. 138–154.</ref> The Sogdian-language contract buried at the [[Astana Cemetery|Astana graveyard]] demonstratesdimostra thatche atalmeno leastun oneuomo Chinesecinese manacquistò boughtuna aragazza Sogdiansogdiana girl innel 639 ADd.C. OneUno ofdegli thearcheologi archaeologistsche whoscavò excavatednel thesito di Astana site, Wu Zhen, contendssostiene thatche, althoughsebbene manymolti householdsnuclei alongfamiliari thelungo Silkla RoadVia boughtdella individualSeta slaves,acquistassero assingoli demonstratedschiavi in(come thedimostrato earlierda documentsdocumenti fromprecedenti di Niya ), thei Turpandocumenti documentsdi pointTurpan toindicano auna massivemassiccia escalationcrescita indel thecommercio volumedi of the slave tradeschiavi.<ref>Wu Zhen 2000 (p. 154 is a Chinese-language rendering based on Yoshida's Japanese translation of the Sogdian contract of 639).</ref> InNel 639 auna femaleschiava Sogdiansogdiana slavefu wasvenduta solda toun a Chineseuomo mancinese, ascome recordedriportato in anun documento legale del cimitero di [[Astana]] cemetery legal document writtenscritto in Sogdiansogdiano.<ref name="Skaff2012">{{ citecita libro book| author autore=Jonathan Karam Skaff | title titolo=Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580–800 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTm6Yka5GigC&pg=PA70 | date data=23 Augustagosto 2012 | publisher editore=OUP US | isbn=978-0-19-973413-9 | pages pp= 70–70-}}</ref> Khotan ande [[Kucha]] wereerano placesluoghi wherecomuni womenper werela commonlyvendita solddi donne, withcon amplenumerose evidenceprove ofdel thecommercio slavedi tradeschiavi ina Turfan thanksgrazie toalle contemporaryfonti textualtestuali sourcescoeve thatche havesono survivedsopravvissute.<ref name="TrombertVaissière2005">{{ citecita libro book| author1 autore=Éric Trombert |author2= e Étienne de La Vaissière | title titolo=Les sogdiens en Chine | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O44MAQAAMAAJ&q=slave | year anno=2005 | publisher editore=École française d'Extrême-Orient | isbn=978-2-85539-653-8 | page p=299}}</ref><ref name="TrombertVaissière">{{ citecita web | url=http://history.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/hansen-silk-road-trade.pdf | archive-url urlarchivio=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105062305/http://history.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/hansen-silk-road-trade.pdf | archive-date urlmorto= 5 November 2013no | url-status=live |titletitolo=Les Sogdiens en Chine: The Impact of the Silk Road Trade on a Local Community: The Turfan Oasis, 500–800 | first autore=Valerie |last=Hansen | website sito=History.yale.edu | access-date accesso=25 Julyluglio 2017}}</ref> InNella [[ Tangpoesia poetryTang]] , Sogdianle girlsragazze alsosogdiane frequentlyappaiono appearspesso ascome [[ waiting staff|serving maidscameriere]] innei thelocali tavernse andnelle innslocande of thedella capitalcapitale Chang'an.<ref> Rong,{{cita pubblicazione | autore=Xinjiang , "Rong | titolo=New light on Sogdian Colonies along the Silk Road : Recent Archaeological Finds in Northern China (Lecture at the BBAW on 20 September 2001) ", in| ''rivista=Berichte und Abhandlungen '' (| data=17 Decemberdicembre 2009 ); | numero=10 , S.,| p . =150 .}}</ref> ▼
Le schiave sogdiane e i loro padroni cinesi maschi costituivano la maggioranza delle coppie donna sogdiana-uomo cinese, mentre le donne sogdiane libere erano le spose più comuni per gli uomini sogdiani. Un numero minore di donne cinesi sposava uomini sogdiani di rango elevato. Secondo i documenti esistenti, le coppie formate da uomo e donna sogdiani rappresentavano diciotto dei ventuno matrimoni registrati.<ref name="TrombertVaissière"/><ref name="TrombertVaissière2005 2">{{cita libro | autore=Éric Trombert e Étienne de La Vaissière | titolo=Les sogdiens en Chine | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O44MAQAAMAAJ&q=slave | anno=2005 | editore=École française d'Extrême-Orient | isbn=978-2-85539-653-8 | pp=300.301}}</ref>
▲[[File:Contract written in Sogdian for the purchase of a slave in 639 CE, Astana Tomb No. 135.jpg|thumb|left|Contract written in Sogdian for the purchase of a slave in 639 CE, [[Astana Tomb]] No. 135.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pei |first1=Chengguo |title=The Silk Road and the Economy of Gaochang: Evidence on the Circulation of Silver Coins |journal=The Silk Road |date=2017 |volume=15 |page=40 |url=http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol15/srjournal_v15.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517030834/http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol15/srjournal_v15.pdf |archive-date=17 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
▲Sogdian and Chinese merchants regularly traded in slaves in and around Turpan during the Tang dynasty. [[Turpan]] under [[Tang dynasty]] rule was a center of major commercial activity between Chinese and [[Sogdian people|Sogdian]] merchants. There were many inns in Turpan. Some provided Sogdian sex workers with an opportunity to service the [[Silk Road]] merchants, since the official histories report that there were markets in women at [[Kucha]] and [[Khotan]].<ref>Xin Tangshu 221a:6230. In addition, [[Susan Whitfield]] offers a fictionalized account of a Kuchean courtesan's experiences in the 9th century without providing any sources, although she has clearly drawn on the description of the prostitutes' quarter in [[Chang'an]] in Beilizhi; Whitfield, 1999, pp. 138–154.</ref> The Sogdian-language contract buried at the [[Astana Cemetery|Astana graveyard]] demonstrates that at least one Chinese man bought a Sogdian girl in 639 AD. One of the archaeologists who excavated the Astana site, Wu Zhen, contends that, although many households along the Silk Road bought individual slaves, as demonstrated in the earlier documents from Niya, the Turpan documents point to a massive escalation in the volume of the slave trade.<ref>Wu Zhen 2000 (p. 154 is a Chinese-language rendering based on Yoshida's Japanese translation of the Sogdian contract of 639).</ref> In 639 a female Sogdian slave was sold to a Chinese man, as recorded in an [[Astana]] cemetery legal document written in Sogdian.<ref name="Skaff2012">{{cite book|author=Jonathan Karam Skaff|title=Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580–800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTm6Yka5GigC&pg=PA70|date=23 August 2012|publisher=OUP US|isbn=978-0-19-973413-9|pages=70–}}</ref> Khotan and [[Kucha]] were places where women were commonly sold, with ample evidence of the slave trade in Turfan thanks to contemporary textual sources that have survived.<ref name="TrombertVaissière2005">{{cite book|author1=Éric Trombert|author2=Étienne de La Vaissière|title=Les sogdiens en Chine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O44MAQAAMAAJ&q=slave|year=2005|publisher=École française d'Extrême-Orient|isbn=978-2-85539-653-8|page=299}}</ref><ref name="TrombertVaissière">{{cite web |url=http://history.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/hansen-silk-road-trade.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105062305/http://history.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/hansen-silk-road-trade.pdf |archive-date=5 November 2013 |url-status=live |title=Les Sogdiens en Chine: The Impact of the Silk Road Trade on a Local Community: The Turfan Oasis, 500–800 |first=Valerie |last=Hansen|website=History.yale.edu|access-date=25 July 2017}}</ref> In [[Tang poetry]] Sogdian girls also frequently appear as [[waiting staff|serving maids]] in the taverns and inns of the capital Chang'an.<ref>Rong, Xinjiang, "New light on Sogdian Colonies along the Silk Road : Recent Archaeological Finds in Northern China (Lecture at the BBAW on 20 September 2001)", in ''Berichte und Abhandlungen'' (17 December 2009); 10, S., p. 150.</ref>
SogdianUn slavedocumento girlsdatato andal their731 Chinesed.C. malerivela ownersche madeesattamente upquaranta the[[Pezza majority(tessile)|rotoli]] ofdi Sogdianseta female-Chinesefurono malepagati pairings,a whileun freecerto SogdianMi womenLushan, wereun themercante mostdi commonschiavi spousesogdiano, ofda Sogdianun men.cinese Adi smallernome numberTang ofRong Chinese(唐榮) womendi Chang'an, per l'acquisto weredi paireduna withragazza elitedi Sogdianundici menanni. SogdianUn man-and-womanuomo pairingsdi madeXizhou, upun eighteentocaristano out(ossia ofun twenty-onebattriano) e tre sogdiani marriagesverificarono accordingla tovendita existingdella documentsragazza.<ref name="TrombertVaissière" /><ref name="TrombertVaissière2005 23">{{citecita libro book|author1 autore1=Éric Trombert|author2= e Étienne de La Vaissière |title titolo=Les sogdiens en Chine | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O44MAQAAMAAJ&q=slaveMi+Lushan |year anno=2005 |publisher editore=École française d'Extrême-Orient | isbn=978-2-85539-653-8 |pages p=300–301300}}</ref>
CentralI Asianspopoli likedell'Asia Sogdianscentrale, werecome calledi "Sogdiani, venivano chiamati ''Hu "'' (胡) bydai thecinesi Chinesedurante duringla thedinastia Tang dynasty. CentralLe Asiandonne "''Hu "'' womendell'Asia werecentrale stereotypederano asstereotipate barmaidscome orcameriere dancerso bydanzatrici Handai in Chinacinesi. HanGli Chineseuomini mencinesi engagedavevano inper mostlylo extra-maritalpiù sexualrapporti relationshipssessuali withextraconiugali themcon asloro, thedato "Hu"che womenle indonne China''Hu'' mostlyoccupavano occupiedspesso positionsruoli whereche sexualprevedevano servicesservizi weresessuali soldper toi patronsclienti, likecome singerscantanti, maidscameriere, slavesschiave ande prostitutesprostitute.<ref>{{ citecita booklibro | last= Abramson |firstautore=Marc S. Abramson | series serie=Encounters with Asia | date= anno=2011 | title= titolo=Ethnic Identity in Tang China | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&dq=%22vast+numbers+of+non-Han+women+served+in+subordinate+positions%22&pg=PA20 |___location= | publisher editore=University of Pennsylvania Press | page p=20 | isbn=978-0812201017}}</ref><ref>{{ citecita booklibro | last= Abramson |firstautore=Marc S. Abramson | series serie=Encounters with Asia | date= anno=2011 | title= titolo=Ethnic Identity in Tang China | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&pg=PA202 |___location= | publisher editore=University of Pennsylvania Press | page p=202 | isbn=978-0812201017}}</ref><ref>{{ citecita booklibro | last= Abramson |firstautore=Marc S. Abramson | series serie=Encounters with Asia |author-link= | date= anno=2011 | title= titolo=Ethnic Identity in Tang China | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&dq=%22the+hu-chi,+mainly+Iranian+girls,+found+in+China+during+the+Tang+period%22&pg=PA235 |___location= | publisher editore=University of Pennsylvania Press | page p=235 | isbn=978-0812201017 |quote=Katô Hakushi Kanreki Kinen Ronbunshû Kankôkai. 83–91. Tokyo: Fuzanbô. ———. 1948. Tôshi sôshô. Tokyo: Kaname Shohô. ———. 1961. “The hu-chi, mainly Iranian girls, found in China during the Tang period.}}</ref><ref>{{ citecita booklibro | last= Light|firstautore=Nathan Light | date= anno=1998 | title= titolo=Slippery Paths: The Performance and Canonization of Turkic Literature and Uyghur Muqam Song in Islam and Modernity | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mCRkAAAAMAAJ&q=%22the+hu-chi,+mainly+Iranian+girls,+found+in+China+during+the+Tang+period%22 | ___location= |publishereditore=Indiana University | page p=303 |quote=... see Mikinosuke ISHIDA, " Etudes sino – iraniennes, I : A propos du Hou – siuan – wou, " AIRDTB, 6 ( 1932 ) 61–76, and " The Hu – chi, Mainly Iranian Girls, found in China during the Tang Period, " MRDTB, 20 ( 1961 ) 35–40 .}}</ref><ref>{{ citecita booklibro | number numero=29 of Bibliographies and indexes in religious studies | last1= Israeli|first1autore=Raphael |last2=Israeli e Lyn Gorman | first2=Lyn |dateanno= 1994 | title titolo=Islam in China: A Critical Bibliography | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lLHgAAAAMAAJ&q=%22the+hu-chi,+mainly+Iranian+girls,+found+in+China+during+the+Tang+period%22 | issn=0742-6836 | publisher editore=Greenwood Press | isbn=0313278571 |page=153 | edition=illustrated, annotated|quotep= ... 1033 Chinese Mohammedans, " 9012 " How Can We Best Reach the Mohammedan Women ?, " 6025 " How Islam Entered China, " 1057 " The Hu - Chi, Mainly Iranian Girls Found in China during the Tang Period, " 2010 " The Hui and the ...153}}</ref><ref>{{ citecita book|editor-last=libro Ling| editor-first1 curatore=Scott K. Ling | date= anno=1975 | title titolo=近三十年中國文史哲論著書目: Studies on Chinese Philosophy, Religion, History, Geography, Biography, Art, and Language and Literature | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrlqXza9oKAC&dq=%22the+hu-chi,+mainly+Iranian+girls,+found+in+China+during+the+Tang+period%22&pg=PA209 | publisher editore=Liberal Arts Press | isbn=9575475399 |page=209 | edition=illustrated, annotated|quotep= ... 1033 Chinese Mohammedans, " 9012 " How Can We Best Reach the Mohammedan Women ?, " 6025 " How Islam Entered China, " 1057 " The Hu - Chi, Mainly Iranian Girls Found in China during the Tang Period, " 2010 " The Hui and the ...209}}</ref> SouthernLe ragazze [[ Yue (popolo)|Baiyue]] girlsmeridionali wereerano exoticizedoggetto indi esotizzazione nella poemspoesia.<ref>{{ citecita booklibro | last autore= 白 李 | first= 白|date= |titletitolo=全唐詩 | url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%85%A8%E5%94%90%E8%A9%A9/%E5%8D%B7184#%E8%B6%8A%E5%A5%B3%E8%A9%9E%E4%BA%94%E9%A6%96 |___location= | publisher= |page= |chaptercapitolo=卷184#越女詞五首 卷一百八十四 | lingua=zh}}</ref> HanGli menuomini didcinesi notgeneralmente wantevitavano todi legallysposarle marrylegalmente, themsalvo unlessnecessità, theycome hadquando nosi choicetrovavano suchnelle asregioni ifdi theyfrontiera were on the frontier oro in exileesilio, sincepoiché thesposare Handonne mennon-cinesi wouldpoteva berappresentare sociallyuno disadvantagedsvantaggio and have to marry non-Hansociale.<ref>{{ citecita booklibro | last= Abramson |firstautore=Marc S. Abramson | series serie=Encounters with Asia | author-link= |dateanno= 2011 | title= titolo=Ethnic Identity in Tang China | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&dq=%22documented+cases+of+marriage+between+Han+men+and+non-Han+women+occurred+when+the+Han+men+were+in+socially+liminal+situations%22&pg=PA158 | ___location= |publishereditore=University of Pennsylvania Press | page p=158 | isbn=978-0812201017}}</ref><ref>{{ citecita booklibro | last= Abramson |firstautore=Marc S. Abramson | series serie=Encounters with Asia |author-link= | date= anno=2011 | title= titolo=Ethnic Identity in Tang China | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&pg=PA218 | ___location= |publishereditore=University of Pennsylvania Press | page p=218 | isbn=978-0812201017}}</ref><ref>{{ citecita booklibro | last autore= 昫 劉 | first= 昫|date= |titletitolo=舊唐書 | url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%88%8A%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7193 | chapter capitolo=卷193 卷一百九十三 | lingua=zh}}</ref> TheAgli taskschiavi of''Hu'' takingin careCina ofveniva herdanche animalsaffidato likeil sheepcompito anddi cattleaccudire wasil givenbestiame, tocome "Hu"pecore slavese in Chinabovini.<ref>{{ citecita booklibro | last= Abramson |firstautore=Marc S. Abramson | series serie=Encounters with Asia |author-link= | date= anno=2011 | title= titolo=Ethnic Identity in Tang China | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&dq=%22presented+the+captured+women+and+livestock%22&pg=PA136 | ___location= |publishereditore=University of Pennsylvania Press | pages pp=135, 136 | isbn=978-0812201017}}</ref> ▼A document dated 731 AD reveals that precisely forty [[Bolt (cloth)|bolts]] of silk were paid to a certain Mi Lushan, a slave dealing Sogdian, by a Chinese man named Tang Rong (唐榮) of Chang'an, for the purchase of an eleven-year-old girl. A person from Xizhou, a Tokharistani (i.e. Bactrian), and three Sogdians verified the sale of the girl.<ref name="TrombertVaissière" /><ref name="TrombertVaissière2005 3">{{cite book|author1=Éric Trombert|author2=Étienne de La Vaissière|title=Les sogdiens en Chine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O44MAQAAMAAJ&q=Mi+Lushan|year=2005|publisher=École française d'Extrême-Orient|isbn=978-2-85539-653-8|page=300}}</ref>
▲Central Asians like Sogdians were called "Hu" (胡) by the Chinese during the Tang dynasty. Central Asian "Hu" women were stereotyped as barmaids or dancers by Han in China. Han Chinese men engaged in mostly extra-marital sexual relationships with them as the "Hu" women in China mostly occupied positions where sexual services were sold to patrons like singers, maids, slaves and prostitutes.<ref>{{cite book |last= Abramson |first=Marc S. |series=Encounters with Asia|date= 2011 |title= Ethnic Identity in Tang China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&dq=%22vast+numbers+of+non-Han+women+served+in+subordinate+positions%22&pg=PA20|___location= |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|page=20 |isbn=978-0812201017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Abramson |first=Marc S. |series=Encounters with Asia|date= 2011 |title= Ethnic Identity in Tang China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&pg=PA202|___location= |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|page=202 |isbn=978-0812201017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Abramson |first=Marc S. |series=Encounters with Asia|author-link= |date= 2011 |title= Ethnic Identity in Tang China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&dq=%22the+hu-chi,+mainly+Iranian+girls,+found+in+China+during+the+Tang+period%22&pg=PA235|___location= |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|page=235 |isbn=978-0812201017|quote=Katô Hakushi Kanreki Kinen Ronbunshû Kankôkai. 83–91. Tokyo: Fuzanbô. ———. 1948. Tôshi sôshô. Tokyo: Kaname Shohô. ———. 1961. “The hu-chi, mainly Iranian girls, found in China during the Tang period.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Light|first=Nathan |date= 1998|title= Slippery Paths: The Performance and Canonization of Turkic Literature and Uyghur Muqam Song in Islam and Modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mCRkAAAAMAAJ&q=%22the+hu-chi,+mainly+Iranian+girls,+found+in+China+during+the+Tang+period%22|___location= |publisher=Indiana University|page=303 |quote=... see Mikinosuke ISHIDA, " Etudes sino – iraniennes, I : A propos du Hou – siuan – wou, " AIRDTB, 6 ( 1932 ) 61–76, and " The Hu – chi, Mainly Iranian Girls, found in China during the Tang Period, " MRDTB, 20 ( 1961 ) 35–40 .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |number=29 of Bibliographies and indexes in religious studies|last1= Israeli|first1=Raphael |last2= Gorman|first2=Lyn |date= 1994 |title=Islam in China: A Critical Bibliography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lLHgAAAAMAAJ&q=%22the+hu-chi,+mainly+Iranian+girls,+found+in+China+during+the+Tang+period%22|issn=0742-6836 |publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=0313278571|page=153 |edition=illustrated, annotated|quote=... 1033 Chinese Mohammedans, " 9012 " How Can We Best Reach the Mohammedan Women ?, " 6025 " How Islam Entered China, " 1057 " The Hu - Chi, Mainly Iranian Girls Found in China during the Tang Period, " 2010 " The Hui and the ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last= Ling|editor-first1=Scott K. |date= 1975|title=近三十年中國文史哲論著書目: Studies on Chinese Philosophy, Religion, History, Geography, Biography, Art, and Language and Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrlqXza9oKAC&dq=%22the+hu-chi,+mainly+Iranian+girls,+found+in+China+during+the+Tang+period%22&pg=PA209|publisher=Liberal Arts Press|isbn=9575475399|page=209 |edition=illustrated, annotated|quote=... 1033 Chinese Mohammedans, " 9012 " How Can We Best Reach the Mohammedan Women ?, " 6025 " How Islam Entered China, " 1057 " The Hu - Chi, Mainly Iranian Girls Found in China during the Tang Period, " 2010 " The Hui and the ...}}</ref> Southern [[Baiyue]] girls were exoticized in poems.<ref>{{cite book |last= 李 |first= 白|date= |title=全唐詩|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%85%A8%E5%94%90%E8%A9%A9/%E5%8D%B7184#%E8%B6%8A%E5%A5%B3%E8%A9%9E%E4%BA%94%E9%A6%96|___location= |publisher= |page= |chapter=卷184#越女詞五首 卷一百八十四}}</ref> Han men did not want to legally marry them unless they had no choice such as if they were on the frontier or in exile since the Han men would be socially disadvantaged and have to marry non-Han.<ref>{{cite book |last= Abramson |first=Marc S. |series=Encounters with Asia|author-link= |date= 2011 |title= Ethnic Identity in Tang China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&dq=%22documented+cases+of+marriage+between+Han+men+and+non-Han+women+occurred+when+the+Han+men+were+in+socially+liminal+situations%22&pg=PA158 |___location= |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|page=158|isbn=978-0812201017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Abramson |first=Marc S. |series=Encounters with Asia|author-link= |date= 2011 |title= Ethnic Identity in Tang China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&pg=PA218 |___location= |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|page=218|isbn=978-0812201017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= 劉 |first= 昫|date= |title=舊唐書|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%88%8A%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7193 |chapter=卷193 卷一百九十三}}</ref> The task of taking care of herd animals like sheep and cattle was given to "Hu" slaves in China.<ref>{{cite book |last= Abramson |first=Marc S. |series=Encounters with Asia|author-link= |date= 2011 |title= Ethnic Identity in Tang China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&dq=%22presented+the+captured+women+and+livestock%22&pg=PA136 |___location= |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|pages=135, 136|isbn=978-0812201017}}</ref>
== Modern historiography ==
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