Kashmir

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Kashmir is a region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Kashmir historically described the valley just to the south of the westernmost end of the Himalayan range. Politically, however, the term 'Kashmir' describes a much larger area which includes the regions of Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh.

The main "Vale of Kashmir" is relatively low and very fertile, surrounded by magnificent mountains and fed by many mountain streams flowing from adjoining valleys. It is renowned as one of the most spectacularly beautiful places in the world.

Srinagar, the ancient capital, lies alongside Dal Lake and is famous for its canals and houseboats. Srinagar (alt. 1,600 m. or 5,200 ft.) acted as a favoured summer capital for many foreign conquerors who found the heat of the north Indian plains in summer oppressive. Just outside the city are found the beautiful Shalimar gardens created by Jehangir, the Mughal emperor, in 1619.

The region is currently divided amongst three countries: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion Jammu and Kashmir and the People's Republic of China has occupied the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin). Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, India has never formally recognized the accession of the areas claimed by Pakistan and China. Pakistan views the entire Kashmir region as disputed territory, and does not consider India's claim to it to be valid. An option favoured by many Kashmiris is independence, but both Pakistan and India are against this.

The rest of this article will, for the sake of clarity, refer to the parts of Jammu and Kashmir administered by India, Pakistan and China as "Indian Kashmir", "Pakistani Kashmir", and "Chinese Kashmir" respectively. By this nomenclature, the word "Kashmir" in "Indian Kashmir" is used in a very general sense to refer to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Kashmir is one of the world's most well-known territorial disputes, and most Western made maps use a dotted-line to indicate the territory's uncertain boundaries.

History

For history of Kashmir prior to the 19th century, see History of Kashmir.

Modern history

During the 19th century, Kashmir was ruled by the Dogras, who are a predominantly Hindu people in the area around Jammu. Their kings paid tribute to the Sikhs, and were part of the Sikh Empire that arose following the collapse of the Mughal Empire. Under the Sikhs, as feudatories, the Dogras sought and obtained permission to push further into the North, including regions of Ladakh. Zorawar Singh Dogra led an expedition into Tibet in a failed effort to bring it to submission to the Sikh Empire, as a sub-feudatory of the Dogras. With the sudden collapse of the Sikh Empire before the English forces, the Dogras purchased from the British their independence, and thus also assured themselves of their feudal hold over the subsidiary kingdoms of Kashmir, Ladakh and the Emirates of the north. The Dogra kings who originally ruled only from Jammu, also began to operate in summer from Srinagar, the metropolis of Kashmir. As a result, the Dogra Kingdom developed into a sort of "Dual Monarchy", the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir.

Kashmir is a valley whose beauty has been proclaimed by many and stretches out at about 7,200 square kilometers (2,800 square miles) at an elevation of 1,675 meters (5,500 feet). A Mughal ruler who built the famed Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir made the statement, " If heaven be on this earth, it must be here." It has a very ancient history and it was for a long time one of the centers of Hindu philosophical, literary and religious culture, a tradition still maintained by the native population. Kashmiri literature, sculpture, music, dance, painting, and architecture have had a profound influence in Asia.

On 8 October 2005, Kashmir was struck by an earthquake with a magnitude between 7.6 and 7.8 on the Moment magnitude scale.

Partition, dispute and war

File:Mountbatten.jpg

The Instrument of Accession was accepted by Lord Mountbatten of India

In 1935 (before Indian independence), British rulers compelled the Dogra King of Jammu & Kashmir to lease for 60 years parts of his kingdom; parts which went to make up the new Province of the North-West Frontier, in a move designed to strengthen their northern boundaries, especially from Russia.

In 1947, the British dominion of India came to an end with the creation of two new nations, India and Pakistan. Each of the 565 Indian princely states had to decide which of the two new nations to join: secular India or Islamic Pakistan. Jammu and Kashmir, which had a predominantly Muslim population, was one of these autonomous states, ruled by the Dogra King (or Maharaja) Hari Singh. Hari Singh preferred to remain independent and sought to avoid the stress placed on him by either India and Pakistan by playing each against the other.

Pakistani tribals (Kabailis) from North Waziristan entered Kashmir seeking rule over Kashmir through aggression. The Maharajah was not able to put up against the invasion; he decided to accede Kashmir to India. The Indian troops then marched into Kashmir.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

The irregular Pakistani tribals made rapid advances into North Kashmir (Baramulla sector). Maharaja Hari Singh and Prime Minister Sheikh Abdulla asked the Government of India to intervene and halt this rebellion movement. However, the Government of India pointed out that India and Pakistan had signed an agreement of non-intervention (maintenance of the "status quo") in Jammu and Kashmir; and although tribal fighters from Pakistan had entered Jammu and Kashmir, there was, until then, no iron-clad legal evidence to unequivocally prove that the Government of Pakistan was officially involved, so it would be illegal for India to unilaterally intervene (in an open, official capacity) unless Jammu and Kashmir officially joined the Union of India, at which point it would be possible for send in its forces and occupy the remaining parts. Thus the government pressured the maharajah to accede to India.

The Maharaja and Prime Minister would have preferred to stay independent to maintain his power and influence, but desperately needed the Indian military's help when the Pakistani tribal invadors reached the outskirts of Srinagar. Before their arrival into Srinagar, Maharaja Hari Singh and Prime Minister Sheikh Abdulla completed negotiations for acceding Jammu and Kashmir to India and receiving military aid in return. The agreement which ceded Jammu and Kashmir to India was signed by the Maharaja and Lord Mountbatten.^[1] Original Accession Document

Pakistan claims that the Maharaja and Prime Minister acted under duress, and that the accession of Kashmir to India is invalidated by a previous agreement between India and Pakistan, to maintain the "status quo". India counters that the invasion of Kashmir by tribals, aided and instigated by Islamabad, and reinforced by the Pakistani military, had rendered the agreement null and void. India also points out that the accession of Jammu and Kashmir to India was not just the decision of the ruler Hari Singh, but also of the democratically elected Prime Minister Sheikh Abdulla which reflected the popular will of the people living in Jammu and Kashmir.

The resulting war, the First Kashmir War, lasted until 1948, when India moved the issue to the UN Security Council. On 30th March 1951, the Security Council passed resolution 91. The resolution imposed an immediate cease-fire and said that Pakistan should withdraw all presence and had no say in Jammu and Kashmir politics. It stated that India should retain a minimum military prescence and stated "that the final disposition of the State of Jammu and Kashmir will be made in accordance with the will of the people expressed through the democratic method of a free and impartial plebiscite conducted under the auspices of the United Nations".

At that time, the Indian and Pakistani government agreed to hold that plebiscite but Pakistan never actually removed its troops. The UN Security Council again passed resolution 122 in 1957 which reaffirmed its earlier resolution.

Aftermath of war

The Treaty of Accession signed by Sheikh Abdullah and Maharaja Hari Singh and his heir, the Sardar-e-Riyasat K. Singh Dogra, was ratified by the popular parliament of the kingdom, dominated by the popular political party of Kashmir, the National Conference led by Sheikh Abdullah. The Indian Government negotiated an autonomous status for the kingdom, and it was the only Indian province permitted to retain its own constitution, flag, anthem, etc.

Pakistan still asks for a plebiscite in Kashmir under the UN. However, India is no longer willing to allow a plebiscite as it claims that the situation has changed. A majority of the Hindus who once lived in Kashmir were forced to move out due to terrorist activities. On the other hand Pakistan or China are not willing to return areas occupied by them (mentioned as one of the conditions at the UN).

The ceasefire line is known as the Line of Control (dotted line) and is the pseudo-border between India and Pakistan in most of the Kashmir region.

Map of Kashmir showing the Line of Control and disputed areas

Sino-Indian War

In 1962, the People's Republic of China invaded a totally unprepared India using an ongoing minor border dispute as the causus belli, even though there was no pre-existing Chinese claim on any part of Kashmir. China had the upper hand throughout the war, resulting in the Chinese occupation of the region called Aksai Chin, which continues to date, as well as a strip along the eastern border. In addition to these lands, another smaller area, the Trans-Karakoram, was ceded to China by Pakistan in 1963 in exchange for military assistance, including clandestine proliferation of nuclear and ballistic technology by a "Nuclear Weapon State", China, to Pakistan, a non-signatory of Nuclear Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The line that separates India from China in this region is known as the Line of Actual Control. [2]

1965 and 1971 Wars

In 1965 and 1971, heavy fighting again broke out between India and Pakistan. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 resulted in a defeat of Pakistan in East Pakistan (Bangladesh). The Simla Agreement was signed in 1972 between India and Pakistan. By this treaty, both countries agreed to settle all issues by peaceful means and mutual discussions in the framework of the UN Charter. The treaty is often viewed by many as having cemented the Line of Control as a permanent border between the two nations, although Pakistanis and Kashmiris consider it temporary, pending a final solution.

Rise of terrorism

In 1989, a widespread armed insurgency started in Kashmir, which continues to this day. According to Indian views, a large part of these insurgents are Pakistani-trained terrorists. The Indian army claims that letters, pictures, identity cards, and other documents recovered by the Indian Army from several captured and several dead insurgents since widespread insurgency started in 1989, confirm that a number of these men have come from Pakistan, Afghanistan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and various other places to declare a religious war in the name of Islam (jihad).

However, most of the insurgents operating in Kashmir are of Kashmiri origin, fighting for secession from India. India claims that several of them, after being captured by the Indian Army, have confessed that they were contacted by Pakistani recruiters and went to Pakistan for arms training. The economy of Kashmir, dependent on tourism, has been badly damaged due to the ongoing insurgency.

The Pakistani government calls these insurgents, a large fraction of whom are of foreign origin, "Kashmiri freedom fighters", and claims that it gives only moral and diplomatic support to these insurgents.

Cross-border infiltration

The border and the Line of Control separating Indian and Pakistani Kashmir passes through some exceptionally difficult terrain. The world's highest battleground, the Siachen Glacier is a part of this difficult-to-man boundary. It is not feasible, and perhaps not even physically possible, for India to place enough men to guard all sections of the border, throughout the various seasons of the year; this is one of the main reasons for the existance of "cross-border terrorism" in the region. Large sections of the International Border and Line of Control are left totally unguarded for large portions of the year, making it possible for terrorists to cross undetected. This is why the Kargil Intrusion of 1999 was possible.

The Government of Pakistan has repeatedly claimed that by constructing a fence along the LoC, India is violating the Shimla Accord. However, the construction of the fence has helped decrease armed infiltration into Indian-administered Kashmir.

In 2002 Pakistani President and Army Chief General Pervez Musharraf promised to check cross-border terrorism and infiltration into Jammu and Kashmir.

Human rights abuse

Although matters have improved in Jammu and Kashmir following the opening of discussion between President Musharraf and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, the influential independent human rights agency Amnesty International has said in its most recent report, released on May 24 2005, that violations continue. They are unable to determine whether they have decreased because of security-related controls; however, the report praised the efforts led by the Jammu and Kashmir-provincial government headed by Mufti Muhammad Sayeed, for checking human rights violations.

Reasons behind the dispute

Ever since the Partition of India in 1947, both India and Pakistan have claims over Kashmir. These claims are centered on historical incidents and on religious affiliations of the Kashmiri people.

Indian view

The Indian claim centers on the agreement of the Maharaja and Prime Minister to sign over Kashmir to India through the Instrument of Accession. It also focuses on India's claim of secular ideology, an ideology that is not meant to factor religion into governance of major policy and thus imagines it irrelevant in a boundary dispute.

Another argument by India is that it says minorities are very well integreted with many members of the minority communities holding positions of power and influence in India, notably the positions of President (Abdul Kalam) and Prime Minister (Manmohan Singh).

To India, Pakistan's claim to Kashmir based on no better reason than the fact that Kashmir has a Muslim majority population is insupportable. yet another point put foward by India is that in 1947, when Kashmir still had a Muslim majority population, its popular leader, Sheikh Abdullah of its dominant political party, the Jammu & Kashmir National Conference, had unequivocally said that Kashmir would choose to join India and not Pakistan. Indians view this as reflecting the Sufi religious tolerance and secularism that has been part of Kashmir's history since time immemorial and lives in the heart and soul of most Kashmiris, Muslim, Hindu or Buddhist; as opposed to the dogmatic and non-secular Wahabi/Sunni Islam represented by Pakistan. Indeed, the secular nature of Kashmiri Muslims and Hindus is exemplified by the fact that till 1947, Jammu and Kashmir was ruled by a Hindu King, Maharaja Hari Singh, even though an overwhelming majority of the inhabitants of Jammu and Kashmir were Muslim.

Also, the Indian government points to many non Hinduism dominated states like Lakshadweep (Muslim majority), Punjab (Sikhism) and Mizoram (Christian) state in India stating its secular nature. They accuse that Pakistan's actual reason for wanting Kashmir and not say, Lakshadweep is for it's strategic ___location and not because they fear for fellow Muslims safety. Indians also maintain that Kashmiris would be better off in India because they claim that Muslims are better off in India than any other non-Muslim nation.

Pakistani view

Historically, Pakistani claim on Kashmir has been based on the fact that the majority of Kashmir population is Muslim and, if given option, most Kashmiris would vote to join Pakistan. Since 1951, Pakistan has been demanding India to hold plebiscite in Kashmir as agreed by India in 1951. Pakistan claims that Kashmiris took violent path to independence only when they became hopeless and disillusioned of their future. Pakistan claims that India is now using excessive state forces to suppress the freedom struggle of Kashmiris and in doing so, is causing severe human rights violations. This is documented also by several human rights groups.

The water dispute

Another valid reason behind the dispute over Kashmir is water. Kashmir is the origin point for many rivers and tributaries of the Indus River basin. They include Jhelum and Chenab which primarily flow into Pakistan while other branches - the Ravi, Beas and the Sutlej irrigate northern India. Pakistan has been apprehensive that in a dire need India under whose portion of Kashmir lies the origins of the said rivers, would use its strategic advantage and withhold the flow and thus choke the agrarian economy of Pakistan. The Boundary Award of 1947 meant that the headworks of the chief irrigation systems of Pakistan were left located in Indian Territory. Essentially this is seen as a veto power held by India over Pakistan agriculture. The Indus Water Treaty signed in 1960 resolved most of these disputes over the sharing of water, calling for mutual coooperation in this regard. This treaty faced issues raised by Pakistan over the construction of dams on the Indian side which limit water to the Pakistani side.

Many historians agree that the failure of Pakistan to take the much more fertile areas of Kashmir during the initial conflict (First Kashmir War) has cost them dearly. This is because the area occupied by Pakistan is much less fertile and less strategic a point given India's unlimited access to the most critical mineral of all: water. The Kashmir issue thus is both about land and water.

Map issues

As with other disputed territories, each government issues maps depicting their claims in Kashmir as part of their territory, regardless of actual control. It is illegal in India to exclude all or part of Kashmir in a map. Non-participants often use the Line of Control and the Line of Actual Control as the depicted boundaries, as is done in the CIA World Factbook, and the region is often marked out in hashmarks, although the Indian Government strictly opposes such practices.

Recent developments

Both India and Pakistan continue to assert their sovereignty or rights over the entire region of Kashmir. India considers all of Kashmir to be an integral part of India, and often makes statements domestically about acquiring the Pakistani half, known in Pakistan as ‘Azad’ (free) Kashmir. In international forums however it has offered to make the Line of Control a permanent border on a number of occasions. Officially Pakistan insists on a UN sponsored plebiscite, so that the people of Kashmir will have a free say in which country all of Kashmir should be incorporated into. Unofficially, the Pakistani leadership has indicated that they would be willing to accept alternatives such as a demilitarized Kashmir, if sovereignty of Azad Kashmir was to be extended over the Kashmir valley, or the ‘Chenab’ formula, by which India would retain parts of Kashmir on its side of the Chenab river, and Pakistan the other side. Besides the popular factions that support either parties, there is a third faction which supports independence and withdrawal of both India and Pakistan. These have been the respective stands of the parties for long, and there have been no significant change over the years. As a result, all efforts to solve the conflict have been futile so far.

Conflict in Kargil

In mid-1999, insurgents from Pakistani Kashmir infiltrated into Jammu and Kashmir. During the winter season, Indian forces move down to lower altitudes as severe climatic conditions makes it almost impossible for them to guard the high peaks near the LoC. The Pakistan-backed insurgents took advantage of this and occupied vacant mountain peaks of the Kargil range overlooking the highway in Indian Kashmir, connecting Srinagar and Leh. By blocking the highway, they wanted to cut-off the only link between the Kashmir Valley and Ladakh. This resulted in a high-scale conflict between the Indian Army and the Kashmiri insurgents.

At the same time, fears of the Kargil War turning into a nuclear war, provoked the then-US President Bill Clinton to pressure Pakistan to retreat. The conflict ended with the withdrawal of Pakistani backed forces, and India reclaiming control of the peaks which they now patrol and monitor at considerable cost. It is also widely believed that the Indians suffered considerably more losses in terms of personnel, equipment and money.

Efforts to end the crisis

The 9/11 attacks on the US, resulted in the US government wanting to restrain militancy in Pakistan. The USA put diplomatic pressure on Pakistan to cease infiltrations by Islamic fighters into Indian-held Kashmir. The international community also created pressure on Islamabad to stop the terrorist camps operating on its soil. In early 2002, India sought to take advantage of US's new attitude by escalating its response to the attempted terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament, resulting in war threats, massive deployment and international fears of nuclear war in the subcontinent.

After intensive diplomatic efforts by other countries, India started to withdraw troops from the international border, a move that was immediately reciprocated by Pakistan on June 10, 2002, and negotiations began again. Effective November 26, 2003, India and Pakistan have agreed to maintain a ceasefire along the undisputed International Border, the disputed Line of Control, and the Siachen glacier. This is the first such "total ceasefire" declared by both nuclear powers in nearly 15 years. In February 2004, Pakistan further increased pressure on Pakistani Muslims fighting in Indian held Kashmir to adhere to the ceasefire. The nuclear-armed neighbours also launched several other mutual confidence building measures. Restarting the bus service between the Indian- and Pakistani- administered Kashmir has helped difuse the tensions between the countries. Both India and Pakistan have also decided to cooperate on economic fronts.

Subdivisions

Indian-administered Kashmir

India controls approximately 45.5% (101,387 km²) of the disputed terrirtory. Indian-administered Kashmir, known as the state of Jammu and Kashmir, includes 3 main regions:

Indian-controlled Kashmir is divided into 6 administrative districts: Anantnag, Baramulla, Budgam, Doda, Jammu, Kargil, Kathua, Kupwara, Leh, Poonch, Pulwama, Rajauri, Srinagar and Udhampur. Major cities include Srinagar, Jammu and Leh.

Pakistan-administered Kashmir

The Pakistan-controlled portion of Kashmir, is divided up into the following regions:

Azad Kashmir: 250 miles in length with width varying from 10 to 40 miles, 13,300 km² (5134 miles²).
Northern Areas, a much larger area, 72,496 km² (27,991 mi²), incorporated into Pakistan and administered as a de facto dependency.

Chinese-administered Kashmir

Areas under Chinese-control include:

Aksai Chin: approximately 37,555 km² in size.
A small part, the Trans-Karakoram Tract, of the Northern Areas that was ceded to China by Pakistan in 1963.

Demographics

Occupier	Area	Population	% Muslim	% Hindu	% Buddhist	% Other
Pakistan	Northern Areas	~3 million	99%	–	–	–
Pakistan	Azad Kashmir	~3 million	99%	–	–	–
India	Jammu	~9 million	30%	66%	–	4%
	Ladakh		46%	–	50%	3%
	Kashmir Valley		95%	4%	–	–
China	Aksai Chin	–	–	–	–	–
Statistics from the BBC In Depth report

In 1941 the Hindus represented 15 % of the population. In 1991 they only represented 0.1 % of Kashmir's population. [3]

In 1989, the total population of Kashmiri pundits was approximately 425,000. Only 15,000 Kashmiri Pundits still stay in the valley. [4]

Business centres in the Kashmir valley: Srinagar Anantnag Baramulla Sopore

Culture

Kashmiri lifestyle is essentially - irrespective of the differing relgious beliefs - slow paced. Generally peace loving people, the culture has been rich enough to reflect the religious diversity as tribes celebrate festivities that divert them from their otherwise monotonous way of life. Kashmiris are known to enjoy their music in its various local forms and the dresses of both sexes are quite colorful. The Dumhal is a famous dance in Kashmir, performed by menfolk of the Wattal region. The women perform the Rouff another folk dance.

Economy

Historically, Kashmir came into economic limelight when the world famous Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations. Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas and pottery. Kashmir is home to the finest saffron in the world - the Kashmir/Indian saffron. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as organic foods mainly to the middle east. It has traditionally been a holy site for various religions like, Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam. Along with pilgrimage, since the dawn of the 20th century, it also became a favourite tourist spot until the spurt of tensions in the 1990s.

The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake which resulted in over twenty two thousand deaths.(Updated October 10th)

Tourist attractions

The Vale of Kashmir, from Talmarg. Kashmir, India

The scenic setting of Kashmir itself has been a major tourist attraction despite the ever present danger. The mode of travel itself is a picturesque sight with many house boats and boat taxis ferrying passengers and goods alike. There are many mosques serving the Muslim population, such as the Hazratbal Mosque, situated on the western banks of Dal Lake. The mosque is home to a holy hair belonging to the prophet Mohammed which was sent to Kashmir by the Moghul emperor Aurangzeb. Thirty kilometers from Srinagar lies Chrar-e-Sharif, which is a holy shrine of the Muslim Sheikh Noor-ud-Din Wali. Originally constructed in 1395, Khanqah of Shah Hamadan is the first mosque ever built in Srinagar. There are also some Hindu temples. In addition, there is the claimed tomb of Jesus in the Rozabal section of Srinagar, visited by many. There is also the purported tomb of Moses on Mount Nebo (Nebo Bal). Recently a number of Jews have started to visit Kashmir to see the land where some lost tribes may have settled in antiquity. Kashmir tourism received a boost when the world's highest and longest operating gondola lift was opened for the public in the Gulmarg region of J&K, thereby providing easier access to skiing as well as mountaineering.

External links

Latest news, reports, analysis and intelligence on Kashmir
Review of most scholarly positions on Kashmir
Monitoring of news related to Kashmir
A comprehensive list of the vast array of information available on kashmir
Birds of Kashmir
Silk Road Seattle (The Silk Road Seattle website contains many useful resources including a number of full text historical texts)
Images of Muzaffarabad (Capital City of Azad Kashmir)
kashmiris.org provides News views, Bookmarks and much more on kashmir
Images of Azad Kashmir (Free Kashmir)
Kashmir News Network
Kashmiri Publications
UN Resolutions on Kashmir
Kashmiri Music
Kashmir bibliography and specialists
Kashmiri Language
Milchar
Project Zaan
Kashmiri Shaivism
Kundalini
Cuisine
An outline of the history of Kashmir
History of Kashmir from Pakistani perspective
An overview of Kashmiri achievements
http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/in_depth/south_asia/2002/kashmir_flashpoint/
News Coverage of Kashmir
http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/06/09/1022982800226.html
http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,730340,00.html
http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/kargil/index.asp
Legal Documents related to Kashmir including treaties etc..
Jammu & Kashmir on The Indian Analyst News, Analysis, and Opinion from many sources

Map Issues

When Microsoft released a map in Windows 95 and MapPoint 2002, a controversy was raised because it did not show all of Kashmir as part of India as per Indian claim
- Microsoft press report on the issue