Hatshepsut

Hatshepsut (also read as Hatchepsut and meaning Foremost of Noble Ladies)^[3] was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of ancient Egypt. She is generally regarded by Egyptologists as one of the most successful female pharaohs of Egypt, reigning longer than any other female ruler of an indigenous dynasty.

Hatshepsut
Hatchepsut
Reconstructed statue of Hatshepsut in her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri Reconstructed statue of Hatshepsut in her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri
Pharaoh
Reign	1479 BC to 1458 BC
Predecessor	Thutmose II
Successor	Thutmose III
Royal titulary Horus name Wesretkau [1] Mighty of Kas Nebty name Wadjrenput[1] Flourishing of years Golden Horus Netjeretkhau [1] Divine of appearance Nomen , , Khnumt-Amun Hatshepsut[1] Joined with Amun, Foremost of Noble Ladies
Consort	Thutmose II
Father	Thutmose I
Mother	Queen Ahmose
Born	c.1508 BC[2]
Died	1458 BC
Burial	KV20 (re-interred in KV60[2])
Monuments	Temple of Karnak, Deir el-Bahri, Speos Artemidos
Dynasty	18th Dynasty

Hatshepsut is believed to have served as a co-regent from about 1479 to 1458 BC (or Years 7 to 21 of Thutmose III).^[4] She is regarded as one of the earliest known queens regnant in history (after Merneith of the 1st dynasty) and only the second woman known to have formally assumed power as "King of Upper and Lower Egypt" after Queen Sobekneferu of the 12th Dynasty.

Hatshepsut's remains were long considered lost, but in June 2007, a mummy from KV60 was publicly identified as her by Zahi Hawass, the chief of Egypt's antiquities. Evidence supporting this identification includes the results of a DNA comparison with the mummy of Ahmose Nefertari, Hatshepsut's grandmother.^[5] Further conclusive evidence includes our possession of a single tooth previously found inside a small wooden box inscribed with Hatshepsut's name and cartouche - Zahi Hawass's team's cat-scan revealed that this tooth exactly matches and is indeed the missing tooth from this mummy's jaw.^[6] Modern CT scans of the mummy believed to be Hatshepsut suggests she was about 50 when she died of some combination of metastatic bone cancer, diabetes, and liver cancer.^[2] Egyptologists not involved in the project, however, have reserved acceptance of the findings until further testing is undertaken.^[2]

Family and early life

Hatshepsut was the eldest daughter of Thutmose I and Queen Ahmose, the first king and queen of the Thutmosid clan of the 18th Dynasty. Thutmose I and Ahmose are known to have had only one other child, a daughter Akhbetneferu (Neferubity), who died in infancy. Thutmose I also married Mutnofret, possibly a daughter of Ahmose I, and produced several half-brothers to Hatshepsut: Wadjmose, Amenose, Thutmose II, and possibly Ramose, through that union. Both Wadjmose and Amenose were prepared to succeed their father, but neither lived beyond adolescence. In childhood, Hatshepsut is believed to have been favored by the Temple of Karnak over her two brothers by her father, a view promoted by her own propaganda. Hatshepsut apparently had a close relationship with both her parents, and later produced a propaganda story in which her father Thutmose I supposedly named her as his direct heir. Hatshepsut dressed like a man and wore a false beard to prove that she could be Pharaoh and rule Egypt in her own right.

Upon the death of her father in 1493 BC, she married Thutmose II and assumed the title of Great Royal Wife. Thutmose II ruled for thirteen years, during which it has traditionally been believed that Hatshepsut exerted a strong influence over her husband. Thutmose II died leaving behind only a young son, Thutmose III, for a successor. However, Thutmose III was not eligible to immediately take the throne, due to his relative youth and the fact that he was born of a lesser wife of Thutmose II and not of the Great Royal Wife Hatshepsut herself.

Thutmose II had one daughter with Hatshepsut: Neferure. Hatshepsut groomed Neferure as crown prince, commissioning official portraits of her wearing the false beard and sidelock of youth. Some scholars speculate that this is evidence that Hatshepsut was grooming Neferure for the throne; others that she was merely planning another Hatshepsut. Whatever her intentions were, they came to nothing as Neferure did not live into adulthood.

She also had a grandmother named Amos Nefreteri[2].

Rule

Dates and length of reign

Hatshepsut is given a reign of about 22 years by ancient authors. Josephus writes that she reigned for 21 years and 9 months while Africanus states her reign lasted 22 years, both of whom were quoting Manetho. At this point in time, Hatshepsut disappears from history since Thutmose III's first major foreign campaign was dated to his 22nd year, which would also have been Hatshepsut's 22nd year.^[7] Dating the beginning of her reign is more difficult, however. Her father's reign definitively began in either 1506 or 1526 BC according to the low and high chronologies, respectively.^[8] However, the length of the reigns of Thutmose I and Thutmose II cannot be determined with absolute certainty. With short reigns, Hatshepsut would have ascended the throne 14 years after Thutmose I's coronation.^[9] Longer reigns would put her ascension 25 years after Thutmose I's coronation.^[10] Thus, Hatshepsut could have assumed power as early as 1512 BC or as late as 1479. Older chronologies dated her reign from 1504 to about 1482.^[11] Modern chronologists tend to agree that Hatshepsut reigned from 1479 to 1458, but there is no definitive proof.

Policies

Upon Thutmose II's death, the throne passed to Thutmose III, and Hatshepsut—as the boy king's aunt and stepmother—was selected to be interregnum regent until he came of age. At first, it appears that Hatshepsut was patterning herself after the powerful female regents of Egypt's then-recent history, but as Thutmose III approached maturity it became apparent that she had only one model in mind: Sobekneferu, the last monarch of the Twelfth Dynasty, who ruled in her own right. However, Hatshepsut took one step further than Sobekneferu by having herself crowned pharaoh around 1473 BC, taking the throne name Maatkare, meaning "Truth in the soul of the sun." After she ascended the throne she changed her name from the feminine Hatshepsut to the male Hatshepsu.^[12]

Hatshepsut surrounded herself with strong and loyal advisors, many of whom are still known today: Hapuseneb, the High Priest of Amun, and her closest advisor, the royal steward Senemut. Because of the close nature of Hatshepsut and Senemut's relationship, some Egyptologists^[specify] have theorized that they were lovers. Among the evidence they offer to support this claim is the fact that Hatshepsut allowed Senemut to place his name and an image of himself behind one of the main doors in Djeser-Djeseru (a rare and unusual sharing of credit), that Senemut had two tombs constructed near Hatshepsut's tomb (this was, however, a standard privilege for close advisors), and the presence of graffiti in an unfinished tomb, used as a rest house by the workers of her mortuary temple, depicting a male and a hermaphrodite in pharaonic regalia engaging in an explicit sexual act. Although the belief that Hatshepsut and Senemut were lovers is well known, it is highly contested among Egyptologists;^[13] all that is agreed on is that the steward had ready access to the queen's ear.

As Hatshepsut reestablished the trade networks that had been disrupted during the Hyksos' occupation of Egypt (the Second Intermediate Period), the wealth of the 18th dynasty that has become so famous since the discovery of the burial of Tutankhamun began to be collected. She oversaw the preparations and funding for a mission to the Land of Punt. The expedition set out in her name with five ships, each measuring seventy feet (21 m) long, with several sails; each ship accommodated 210 men, including sailors and 30 rowers. Many goods were bought in Punt, notably myrrh, which is said to have been Hatshepsut's favorite fragrance. Most notably however, the Egyptians returned from the voyage bearing 31 live frankincense trees, the roots of which were carefully kept in baskets for the duration of the voyage. This was the first ever recorded attempt to replant foreign trees. She reportedly had the trees planted in the courts of her Deir el Bahari mortuary temple. She had the expedition commemorated in relief at Deir el-Bahri, which is famous for its unflattering depiction of the Queen of Punt.

Although many Egyptologists have claimed that her foreign policy was mainly peaceful,^[14] there is evidence that she led successful military campaigns in Nubia, the Levant and Syria early in her career.

Building project

 

Djeser-Djeseru is the main building of Hatshepsut's mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri. Designed by Senemut, the building is an example of perfect symmetry that predates the Parthenon

Hatshepsut was one of the most prolific builder pharaohs of ancient Egypt, commissioning hundreds of construction projects throughout both Upper and Lower Egypt that were grander and more numerous than those of any of her Middle Kingdom predecessors.

She employed two great architects: Ineni, who had worked for both her husband and father, and the royal steward Senemut. During her reign so much statuary was produced that almost every major museum in the world has a collection of Hatshepsut statuary; for instance, the Hatshepsut Room in New York City's Metropolitan Museum of Art is solely dedicated to these pieces. Like most pharaohs she had monuments constructed at the Temple of Karnak. She had twin obelisks, at the time the tallest in the world, erected at the entrance to the temple. One still stands today, as the tallest surviving ancient obelisk on Earth; the other has since broken in two and toppled. Karnak's Red Chapel, or Chapelle Rouge, was intended as a barque shrine and may have originally stood between the two obelisks. She later ordered the construction of two more obelisks to celebrate her sixteenth year as pharaoh; one of the obelisks broke during construction, and thus a third was constructed to replace it. The broken obelisk was left at its quarrying site in Aswan, where it still remains today, demonstrating just how obelisks were quarried.^[15]

The masterpiece of her building projects was her mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri. It was designed and implemented by Senemut on a site on the West Bank of the Nile River near the entrance to the Valley of the Kings. The focal point was the Djeser-Djeseru or "the Sublime of Sublimes", a colonnaded structure of perfect harmony nearly one thousand years before the Parthenon. Djeser-Djeseru sits atop a series of terraces that were once graced with gardens. Djeser-Djeseru is built into a cliff face that rises sharply above it. Djeser-Djeseru and the other buildings of the Deir el-Bahri complex are considered to be among the great buildings of the ancient world.

Official propaganda

 

Large granite sphinx bearing the likeness of the female pharaoh Hatshepsut, depicted with the false beard, a symbol of pharaonic power, residing in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Hatshepsut was an excellent propagandist,^[16] and while all ancient leaders used propaganda to legitimize their rule, she is one of the best known for it. Much of her propaganda had religious overtones supported by the priests at the Temple of Karnak.^[16]

In ancient Egypt, women had a higher status than they did elsewhere in the ancient world, including the court-protected right to own or inherit property. Yet having a female ruler in her own right was rare: only Khent-Kaues^{[citation needed]}, Sobeknefru and possibly Nitocris preceded her as ruling in their own name. Pharaoh was an exclusively male title; at this point in Egyptian history there was no word for a Queen regnant, only one for Queen consort. Hatshepsut is unique in that she was the first woman to take the title of King regnant or King in the absence of a word or title for Queen regnant.

Hatshepsut slowly assumed all of the regalia and symbols of the Pharaonic office: the Khat head cloth, topped with an uraeus, the traditional false beard, and shendyt kilt.^[16] Many existing statues show her in both a feminine and masculine form. Statues portraying Sobekneferu also combine elements of traditional male and female iconography and may have served as inspiration for the works commissioned by Hatshepsut.^[17] However, after this period of transition ended, all depictions of her showed her in a masculine form, with all of the pharaonic regalia and with her breasts omitted. Her reasons for doing this are a topic of great debate in Egyptology. The traditional explanation is that her motivation for wearing men's clothing was sexual. Modern scholars have opted for an alternative theory: that by assuming the exclusively male symbols of pharaonic power, Hatshepsut was asserting her claim to be King or Queen regnant and not "King's Great Wife" or Queen consort. Even after assuming the male persona, Hatshepsut still described herself as a beautiful woman, often the most beautiful woman, and although she assumed almost all of her father's titles, she declined to take the title "The Strong Bull".

While the queen-pharaoh had herself depicted in art wearing the masculine regalia of the king, such as the false beard, it is most unlikely that she actually wore such ceremonial decorations. Statues such as those at the Metropolitan Museum of Art depicting her seated wearing a tight-fitting dress and the nemes crown are a more accurate representation of how she would have presented herself.

One of the most famous pieces of her propaganda is a myth about her birth. In this myth, Amun goes to Ahmose in the form of Thutmose I and awakens her with pleasant odors. At this point Amun places the ankh, a symbol of life, to Ahmose's nose, and Hatshepsut is conceived. Khnum, the god who forms the bodies of human children, is then instructed to create a body and ka, or corporal presence/life force, for Hatshepsut. Khnum and Heket, goddess of life and fertility, leads Ahmose along to a lion bed where she gives birth to Hatshepsut.

The Oracle of Amun proclaimed that it was the will of Amun that Hatshepsut be Pharaoh, further strengthening her position. She publicized Amun's support by having endorsements by Amun carved on her monuments:

Welcome my sweet daughter, my favorite, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare, Hatshepsut. Thou art the Pharaoh, taking possession of the Two Lands.^[18]

She also claimed that she was her father's intended heir and that he made her crown prince of Egypt. Most scholars see this as revisionism on Hatshepsut's part, but one of her best-known biographers, Evelyn Wells, takes her at her word. Propaganda supporting her claim was commissioned on the walls of her mortuary temple:

Then his majesty said to them: "This daughter of mine, Khnumetamun Hatshepsut—may she live!—I have appointed as my successor upon my throne... she shall direct the people in every sphere of the palace; it is she indeed who shall lead you. Obey her words, unite yourselves at her command." The royal nobles, the dignitaries, and the leaders of the people heard this proclamation of the promotion of his daughter, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare—may she live eternally.^[19]

Hatshepsut is considered as one of the greatest female rulers in her era. She is noted as strong and assertive, while also fair and just.

Death and mummification

Hatshepsut died either as she was approaching or just entering middle age, in her 22nd regnal year;^[20] no record of her cause of death has survived. If the recent identification of her mummy in KV60 is correct, CT scans would indicate that she died of metastatic bone cancer in her 50s^[2][21]; it would also suggest that she was overweight, had bad teeth, and probably had diabetes.^[22]

For a long time, her mummy was believed to be missing from the Deir el-Bahri Cache. An unidentified female mummy—found with Hatshepsut's wet nurse Sitre In and with one of her arms posed in the traditional burial style of pharaohs—has led to the theory that an unidentified mummy in KV60 might be Hatshepsut.^[23] Don Ryan, working with Pacific Lutheran University rediscovered KV60, which had been reconcealed after it was discovered at the turn of the century.^{[citation needed]} The tomb had been damaged, but the mummies remained in site.

In March 2006, Zahi Hawass claimed to have located the mummy of Hatshepsut, which was mislaid on the third floor of the Cairo Museum.^[24] On June 26, 2007 it was announced that Egyptologists believe they have identified Hatshepsut's mummy in the Valley of the Kings; this discovery is considered to be the "most important find in the Valley of the Kings since the discovery of King Tutankhamun".^[2][25] Decisive evidence was a molar found in a wooden box inscribed with Hatshepsut's name, found in 1881 in a cache of royal mummies hidden away for safekeeping in a near-by temple. The tooth has been conclusively proven to have been removed from the mummy's mouth, fitting exactly an empty socket in the mummy's jawbone.^[21]

Burial complex

File:Hatshepsut's Temple.JPG

Hatshepsut's Temple

Hatshepsut had begun construction of a tomb when she was the Great Royal Wife of Thutmose II, but the scale of this was not suitable when she became "king", so a second tomb was built. This was KV20, which was possibly the first tomb to be constructed in the Valley of the Kings. The original intention seems to have been to hew a long tunnel that would lead underneath her mortuary temple, but the quality of the limestone bedrock was poor and her architect must have realized that this goal would not be possible. As a result a large burial chamber was created instead. At some point, it was decided to dis-inter her father, Thutmose I, from his original tomb in KV38 and place his mummy in a new chamber below her own. Her original red-quartzite sarcophagus was altered to accommodate her father instead, and a new one was made for her. It is likely that when she died (no later than the 22nd year of her reign), she was interred in this tomb along with her father.^[26]

The tomb was opened in antiquity, the first time during the reign of Hatshepsut's successor, Thutmose III, who re-interred his grandfather Thutmose I to his original tomb, and then possibly moved Hatshepsut's mummy into the tomb of her wet nurse, In-Sitre, in KV60. Though her tomb had been largely cleared (save for both sarcophagi still present when the tomb was fully cleared by Howard Carter in 1903) some grave furnishings have been identified as belonging to the female pharaoh, including a "throne" (bedstead is a better description), a senet game board with carved lion-headed red-jasper game pieces bearing her kingly title, a signet ring, and a partial ushabti figurine bearing her name. In the Royal Mummy Cache at DB320 an ivory canopic coffer was found that was inscribed with the name of Hatshepsut and contained a mummified liver. However, there was a lady of the Twenty-first dynasty of the same name, and this could belong to her instead.^[27]

Changing image

Towards the end of Thutmose III's reign, an attempt was made to delete Hatshepsut from the historical and pharaonic record. This elimination was carried out in the most literal way possible. Her cartouches and images were chiselled off the stone walls - leaving very obvious Hatshepsut-shaped gaps in the artwork - and she was excluded from the official history that now ran without any form of co-regency from Thutmose II to Thutmose III. At the Deir el-Bahri temple, Hatshepsut's numerous statues were torn down and in many cases smashed or disfigured before being buried in a pit. At Karnak there was even an attempt to wall up her obelisks. While it is clear that much of this rewriting of history occurred during the latter part of Thutmose's reign, it is not clear why it happened.

For many years, Egyptologists assumed that it was a damnatio memoriae, the deliberate erasure of a person's name, image and memory, which would cause them to die a second, terrible and permanent death in the afterlife. This appeared to make sense. Thutmose must have been an unwilling co-regent for years. But this assessment of the situation is probably too simplistic. It is highly unlikely that the determined and focused Thutmose - not only Egypt's most successful general, but an acclaimed athlete, author, historian, botanist and architect - would have brooded for two decades before attempting to avenge himself on his stepmother. According to renowned Egyptologist Donald Redford:

Here and there, in the dark recesses of a shrine or tomb where no plebeian eye could see, the queen's cartouche and figure were left intact ... which never vulgar eye would again behold, still conveyed for the king the warmth and awe of a divine presence.^[28]

The erasure was sporadic and haphazard, with only the more visible and accessible images of Hatshepsut being removed; had it been more complete, we would not now have so many images of Hatshepsut. It seems that Thutmose must have died before his act of vengeance was finished, or that he never intended a total obliteration of her memory at all. In fact, we have no evidence to support the assumption that Thutmose hated or resented Hatshepsut during her lifetime. Had he done so he could surely, as head of the army (a position given to him by Hatshepsut, who was clearly not worried about her co-regent's loyalty), have led a successful coup. It may well be that Thutmose, lacking any sinister motivation, was, towards the end of his life, simply engaged in 'tidying up' his personal history, restoring Hatshepsut to her rightful place as queen regent rather than king. By eliminating the more obvious traces of his female co-regent, Thutmose could claim all the achievements of their joint reign for himself.

The erasure of Hatshepsut's name, whatever the reason, allowed for her to disappear from Egypt's archaeological and written record. Thus, when 19th-century Egyptologists started to interpret the texts on the Deir el-Bahri temple walls (which were illustrated with two obviously male kings) their translations made no sense. Jean-Francois Champollion, the French decoder of hieroglyphs, was not alone in feeling confused by the obvious conflict between words and pictures:

If I felt somewhat surprised at seeing here, as elsewhere throughout the temple, the renowned Moeris [Thutmose III], adorned with all the insignia of royalty, giving place to this Amenenthe [Hatshepsut], for whose name we may search the royal lists in vain, still more astonished was I to find upon reading the inscriptions that wherever they referred to this bearded king in the usual dress of the Pharaohs, nouns and verbs were in the feminine, as though a queen were in question. I found the same peculiarity everywhere...

File:Hatshepsut, defaced.jpg

These two statues once resembled each other, however the symbols of pharaonic power: the Uraeus, Double Crown, and False beard have been stripped from the left image. Images portraying Hatshepsut as Pharaoh were destroyed, or vandalized within decades of her death

The 2006 discovery^[29] of a foundation deposit including nine golden cartouches bearing the names of both Hatshepsut and Thutmose III in Karnak may shed additional light on the the eventual attempt by Thutmose III to erase Hatshepsut from the historical record and the precise nature of their relationship.

As the Feminist movement matured, prominent women from antiquity were sought out and their achievements became increasingly publicized. Hatshepsut went from being one of the most obscure leaders of Egypt at the beginning of the 20th century to one of its most famous by the century's end. Biographies such as Hatshepsut by Evelyn Wells romanticized her as a beautiful and pacifistic woman — "the first great woman in History." This was quite a contrast to the 19th-century view of Hatshepsut as a wicked stepmother usurping the throne from Thutmose III.

American humorist Will Cuppy wrote an essay on Hatshepsut which was published after his death in the book The Decline and Fall of Practically Everybody. Regarding one of her wall inscriptions, he wrote,

For a general notion of Hatshepsut's appearance at a certain stage of her career, we are indebted to one of those wall inscriptions. It states that "to look upon her was more beautiful than anything; her splendor and her form were divine." Some have thought it odd that the female Pharaoh should have been so bold, fiftyish as she was. Not at all. She was merely saying how things were about thirty-five years back, before she had married Thutmose II and slugged it out with Thutmose III. "She was a maiden, beautiful and blooming", the hieroglyphics run, and we have no reason to doubt it. Surely there is no harm in telling the world how one looked in 1514 B.C.^[30]

The novel Mara, Daughter of the Nile by Eloise Jarvis McGraw, maintains the wicked stepmother view by casting Hatshepsut as the story's villainess. The plot revolves around the efforts of the slave girl Mara and various nobles to overthrow Hatshepsut and install the "rightful" heir, Thutmose III, as Pharaoh. They blame Hatshepsut's numerous building projects for the bankruptcy of the Egyptian state and she is depicted as keeping Thutmose III as a prisoner within the palace walls.

There is a popular theory that states that Hatshepsut was the princess who found Moses floating in the Nile, which has been largely debated by Egyptologists and Biblical scholars.^[31]

At least three authors have written historical fiction novels featuring Hatshepsut as the heroine: Hatshepsut: Daughter of Amun by Moyra Caldecott, Child of the Morning by Pauline Gedge and Pharaoh by Eloise Jarvis McGraw, and the Lieutenant Bak series of mystery novels is set during her reign.

See also

• Hatshepsut problem
• History of ancient Egypt
• Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree
• List of Pharaohs

References

1. Queen Hatshepsut accessed August 1, 2006
2. Wilford, John Noble (2007-06-27). "Tooth May Have Solved Mummy Mystery". New York Times. Retrieved 2007-06-29. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
3. Clayton, Peter. Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994. p.104
4. Dodson, Aidan. Dyan, Hilton. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt Thames & Hudson, 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. p.130
5. "Egypt Says Mummy of Queen Discovered". New York Times. 2007-06-27. Retrieved 2007-06-29. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
6. "The Search for Hatshepsut and the Discovery of Her Mummy by Dr. Zahi Hawass, June 2007".
7. Steindorff, George; and Seele, Keith. When Egypt Ruled the East p.53. University of Chicago, 1942
8. Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt pp. 204. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988
9. Gabolde, Luc (1987).La Chronologie du règne de Thoutmosis II, ses conséquences sur la datation des momies royales et leurs répercutions sur l'histoire du développement de la Vallée des Rois SAK 14: 61–87.
10. Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt p.204. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988
11. Steindorff, George; and Seele, Keith. When Egypt Ruled the East p.40. University of Chicago, 1942
12. Seawright.
13. Tyldesley pp. 189-193 and Wells pp 194-195, see sources below.
14. Tyldesley pp. 137-144, see sources below
15. The Unfinished Obelisk by Peter Tyson March 16, 1999 NOVA online adventure
16. "Hatshepsut".
17. Callender/Shaw p. 170 see sources below
18. Breasted, James Henry, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest, The University of Chicago Press, 1906, pp. 116-117.
19. Hatshepsut, Female Pharaoh of Egypt by Caroline Seawright.
20. Tyldesley pp. 210, see sources below
21. Tooth clinches identification of Egyptian queen Reuters June 27, 2007.
22. [1]
23. Tyldesley pp. 213-214, see sources below
24. Hatshepsut Mummy Found Accessed August 20, 2006
25. Egyptologists think they have Hatshepsut's mummy. Reuters June 25, 2007.
26. Maatkare Hatshepset: The Female Pharaoh, by Forbes, Dennis C. pp. 26-42, KMT, Fall 2005.
27. Bickerstaffe, Dylan The Discovery of Hatshepsut's 'Throne', pp. 71-77, KMT, Spring 2002.
28. Redford, p. 87.
29. Mensan, Romain (2007). "Tuthmosid foundation deposits at Karnak". Egyptian Archaeology. 30: 21. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
30. Will Cuppy, The Decline and Fall of Practically Everybody; Barnes & Noble Books, New York, reprint 1992.
31. Harbin, 122. see sources below

Further reading

• Donald B. Redford, History and Chronology of the 18th dynasty of Egypt: Seven studies, Toronto: University Press, 1967
• Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2000, 512 pages, ISBN 0-19-280293-3
• Gae Callender The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (Chapter 7)
• Joyce Tyldesley, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh, Penguin Books, 1998, paperback, 270 pages, ISBN 0-14-024464-6
• Evelyn Wells, Hatshepsut, Double Day, 1969, hardback, 211 pages, Library of Congress catalog card # 69-10980
• Harbin, Michael, The Promise and the Blessing, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Press, 2005

External links

 

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hatshepsut.

• June 27, 2007 - Mummy positively identified as that of Hatshepsut
• Mummy Of Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut Found
• Interactive, panoramic online view of Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahari, Egypt
• The Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir El-Bahri: The Construction and Restoration of a Masterpiece by Bonnie Sampsell, Journal of the Egyptian Study Society, Winter 2004-2005; Spring 2006
• Video tour the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s gallery of Hatshepsut sculptures
• Hatshepsut - the fifth ruler of the 18th Dynasty
• Hatshepsut, the Queen who would be King at bediz.com
• Poetry honoring Hatshepsut at bediz.com
• Maatkare.com fansite
• 360° Panorama images

Preceded by Thutmose II

Pharaoh of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty

Succeeded by Thutmose III

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