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利用者:Lin Xiangru/sandbox/sub1

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ロスタム・ファッロフザード
17世紀に描かれたシャー・ナーメの挿絵より、ロスタム・ファッロフザード
死没636年11月19日
アル＝カーディシーヤ（英語版）
所属組織サーサーン朝
指揮アードゥルバーダガーンのスパーフベド (631年 – 636年)
戦闘カーディシーヤの戦い
親族ファッルフ・ホルミズド (父)
ファッルフザード（英語版） (弟)

ロスタム・ファッロフザード (رستم فرخزاد、生年不明 - 636年11月19日) はサーサーン朝の軍司令官である。イスパフベダーン家の当主であり、アードゥルバーダガーンのスパーフベド (北西部の軍司令官) を務め、皇帝ボーラーンやヤズデギルド3世に仕えた。カーディシーヤの戦いではサーサーン朝軍の総大将を務めるも、正統カリフ軍に敗れ戦死した。ペルシア語叙事詩シャー・ナーメ（王書）の登場人物や、イラン民族主義者（英語版）の手本としても名高い。

背景

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ロスタムは、イランの七大貴族の一つに数えられるイスパフベダーン家の出身であった。イスパフベダーン家はその起源を軍司令官（スパーフベド）までさかのぼることができ、以降も要職を歴任している[1]。ある伝説によれば、アルサケス朝パルティアの王フラーテス4世（在位：紀元前37年 - 紀元前2年）の娘・Koshmが「全イランの将軍」と結婚し、その子孫が「Aspahpet Pahlav」の称号を授かったことに始まり、その子孫がイスパフベダーン家になったとされている[2]。伝承によればアルサケス朝パルティアの血統を引いていることから、イスパフベダーン家は伝説上のカイ王朝（英語版）の王ダラ2世（英語版）やイスファンディヤール（英語版）の子孫であると自称している[3]。

サーサーン朝時代にも、イスパフベダーン家は高い地位につき、「サーサーン朝の親族でありパートナー」として見られていた[3]。実際に、ロスタムの父・ファッルフ・ホルミズドはサーサーン朝の皇帝（シャーハーンシャー）・ホスロー2世（在位：590年 - 628年）の従兄弟に当たり、曽祖父のシャープールはホスロー1世（在位：531年 - 579年）の従兄弟であった[1]。イスパフベダーン家は先祖代々ホラーサーンを根拠地としていたが、のちにアードゥルバーダガーン（アードゥルバーダガーン（英語版）州とは別物）北西軍管区を統治するようになっている。そのため、ロスタムの出生地はアルメニアやアードゥルバーダガーン、ハマダーン、あるいはレイであると伝えられている[1]。またロスタムにはファッルフザードという兄弟がいて、首都クテシフォンで活躍し、ホスロー2世の寵愛を受け高い地位についていたと伝えられている[4]。

東ローマ帝国との抗争

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アードゥルバーダガーン（英語版）州の地図

602年、東ローマ帝国皇帝・マウリキウス（在位：582年 - 602年）はフォカスによって処刑された。これを受け、ホスロー2世は「恩人マウリキウスの死の復讐」を名目に、東ローマ帝国に宣戦布告した。以降二十数年にわたる戦争（東ローマ・サーサーン戦争 (602年-628年)）は、当初こそ成功を収め、エジプトを含め近東の東ローマ帝国領を征服したが、終盤には形勢が逆転し、新たな東ローマ皇帝・ヘラクレイオス（在位：610年 - 641年）が南コーカサスを征服したため、サーサーン朝の北西軍管区は危機に瀕した[5]。この時期ごろから、サーサーン朝の有力者の多くは、東ローマ帝国の勝利やホスロー2世の政策のために、彼の統治に不満を抱くようになった[6]。

ロスタムもホスロー2世に不満を抱いた一人であり、1万人の兵士を率いてアードゥルバーダガーン州で反乱を起こした。反乱と同時期に、ヘラクレイオスはアードゥルバーダガーンに侵攻し、ガンザク（英語版）を略奪している[5]。現代の歴史家Parvaneh Pourshariatiは、ヘラクレイオスのアードゥルバーダガーン侵攻の成功には、2つの要因があった可能性を主張している。1つの要因は、アードゥルバーダガーン州での反乱による影響のために、アードゥルバーダガーン州侵攻が可能となったことであり、もう1つの要因は、ファッルフ・ホルミズドがホスロー2世への支援をやめたことである[7]。627年までに、ミフラーン家の将軍・シャフルバラーズも反乱を起こし、ファッルフ・ホルミズドは密かに共謀してホスロー2世に対抗している[8]。翌年には、ホスロー2世は帝国内の複数の有力派閥によって廃位された。ミフラーン家のシャフルバラーズ、ファルッフ・ホルミズドとその息子ロスタムやファッルフザードなどに代表されるイスパフベダーン家、Varaztirots2世・バグラトゥニに代表されるアルメニアの派閥やKanarangなどが廃位に協力したようである[9]。ホスロー2世の息子カワード2世を新たに皇帝として擁立し、カワード2世はすぐに父ホスロー2世を処刑した[10]。

Civil war in Iran

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カワード2世、アルダシール3世、シャフルバラーズの治世

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ホスロー2世の死は、628年から632年にかけての内乱へ展開し、有力な貴族は完全な自治権を獲得し、独自の権力を樹立し始めた。ペルシア系（ペルシグ派）貴族とパルティア系（パフラヴ派）貴族間の敵対関係も再燃した[11]。カワード2世の治世の数か月目には、シェーローエの疾病（英語版）と呼ばれる流行病が、サーサーン朝西部諸州を襲い、カワード2世をはじめ人口の半数が疫病によって死んだ[11]。カワード2世の後を継いだのは、わずか8歳の息子、アルダシール3世であった。アルダシール3世の即位は、パフラヴ派、ペルシグ派、ニームルーズ派と呼ばれる第三勢力の支持を得たものであった[12]。しかし、629年に突如、ニームルーズ派はアルダシール3世の支持を撤回し、シャフルバラーズと共謀してアルダシール3世の打倒を企んだ[13]。ファッルフ・ホルミズド率いるパフラヴ派も、ホスロー2世の娘ボーラーンをサーサーン朝の新たな支配者として支持し始め、パフラヴ派の勢力範囲にあるアーモル（英語版）、ニーシャープール、ゴルガーン、ライでは、ボーラーンの貨幣の鋳造が始まっている[13]。630年4月27日、アルダシール3世はシャフルバラーズに殺害されたが[14]、シャフルバラーズもわずか40日間の統治の後、ファッルフ・ホルミズドのクーデターにより殺害されている[15]。ファッルフ・ホルミズドはボーラーンの帝位継承を支援した[16]。

Reign of Boran, Shapur-i Shahvaraz and Azarmidokht

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Drachma of Azarmidokht with the bust of her father Khosrow II to the left

Boran's accession was most likely due to her being the only remaining legitimate heir of the empire able to rule, along with her sister Azarmidokht.[17] However, she was deposed in 630, and Shapur-i Shahrvaraz, the son of Shahrbaraz and a sister of Khosrow II, was made ruler of Iran.[18] When he was not recognized by the Parsig faction of the powerful general Piruz Khosrow, he was deposed in favor of Azarmidokht.[19] Farrukh Hormizd, in order to strengthen his authority and create a harmonious modus vivendi between the Pahlav and Parsig families, asked Azarmidokht (who was a Parsig nominee) to marry him.[20] Not daring to refuse, she had him killed with the aid of the Mihranid aristocrat Siyavakhsh, who was the grandson of Bahram Chobin, the famous military commander and briefly monarch of Iran.[21] Rostam, who was at that time stationed in Khorasan, succeeded him as the leader of the Pahlav. In order to avenge his father, he left for Ctesiphon, in the words of the 9th century historian Sayf ibn Umar, "defeating every army of Azarmidokht that he met".[22] He then defeated Siyavakhsh's forces at Ctesiphon and captured the city.[22] Azarmidokht was shortly afterwards blinded and killed by Rostam, who restored Boran to the throne in June 631.[23][24] Boran complained to him about the state of the empire, which was at that time in a state of frailty and decline. She reportedly invited him to administer its affairs, and so allowed him to assume overall power.[22]

 
Drachma of Boran

A settlement was reportedly made between the family of Boran and Rostam: according to Sayf, it stated that the queen should "entrust him [i.e., Rostam] with the rule for ten years,” at which point sovereignty would return "to the family of Sasan if they found any of their male offspring, and if not, then to their women".[22] Boran deemed the agreement appropriate, and had the factions of the country summoned (including the Parsig), where she declared Rostam as both the leader of the country and its military commander.[22] The Parsig faction agreed, with Piruz Khosrow being entrusted to administer the country alongside Rostam.[25]

The Parsig agreed to work with the Pahlav because of the fragility and decline of Iran, and also because their Mihranid collaborators had been temporarily defeated by Rostam.[25] However, the cooperation between the Parsig and Pahlav would prove short-lived, due to the unequal conditions between the two factions, with Rostam's faction having a much more significant portion of power under the approval of Boran.[25] In the following year a revolt broke out in Ctesiphon. While the imperial army was occupied with other matters, the Parsig, dissatisfied with the regency of Rostam, called for the overthrow of Boran and the return of the prominent Parsig figure Bahman Jaduya, who had been dismissed by her.[26] Boran was killed shortly after; she was presumably strangled by Piruz Khosrow.[26][27] Hostilities were thus resumed between the two factions.[26] Not long afterwards, both Rostam and Piruz Khosrow were threatened by their own men, who had become alarmed by the declining state of the country.[28] Rostam and Piruz Khosrow thus agreed to work together once more, installing Boran's nephew Yazdegerd III (（在位: [[{{{1}}}年]] - [[{{{2}}}年]]）632–651) on the throne, and so putting an end to the civil war.[28]

 
Drachma of a young Yazdegerd III, the last Sasanian monarch of Iran

Accession of Yazdegerd III and end of the civil war

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Yazdegerd was crowned in the Anahid fire-temple in Istakhr, where he had been hiding during the civil war. The temple was the very place where the first Sasanian shahanshah Ardashir I (（在位: 224年 - 242年）) had crowned himself, indicating that the reason behind Yazdegerd's coronation at the same place was due to hopes for a rejuvenation of the empire.[29] He was almost the last living member of the House of Sasan.[30] Most scholars agree that Yazdegerd was eight years old at his coronation.[11][31][32] At his accession, he assigned Rostam with the defense of the empire, telling him "Today you are the [most prominent] man among the Persians."[33] Although being acknowledged as the rightful monarch by both the Parsig and Pahlav factions, Yazdegerd did not seem to have held sway over all of his empire. Indeed, during the first years of his rule coins were only minted in Pars, Sakastan, and Khuzestan, approximately corresponding to the regions of the southwest (Xwarwarān) and southeast (Nēmrōz), where the Parsig was based.[34] The Pahlav, who were mainly based in the northern portion of the empire, refused to mint coins of him.[34]

The Arab invasion of the Sasanian Empire

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Throughout this period the Muslim conquests had slowly been penetrating the south-western frontiers under the second Rashidun caliph Umar. The Persians had repeatedly blocked this advance and in 634 the caliph's army suffered a seemingly decisive defeat at the Battle of the Bridge. The Sasanian general Bahman Jaduya, though, was ordered back to Ctesiphon by Rostam in order to put down a revolt in his own capital city. Caliph Umar's forces retreated, only to launch a successful assault three years later.

 
Map of Sasanian Mesopotamia and its surroundings.

In 636, Yazdegerd III ordered Rostam Farrokhzad to subdue the Muslim Arabs invading Iran and then told him: "Today you are the [most prominent] man among the Iranians. You see that the people of Iran have not faced a situation like this since the family of Ardashir I assumed power." Yazdegerd then said: "the Arabs and their exploits since they have camped at Qadisiyyah and ... what the Iranians have suffered at their hands."

Rostam then replied by saying that the Arabs were "a pack of wolves, falling upon unsuspecting shepherds and annihilating them."

However, Yazdegerd then argued with him and said: "It is not like that. I put the question to you in the expectation that you would describe them clearly and that then I would be able to reinforce you so that you might act according to the [real situation]. But you did not say the right thing." Yazdegerd "then compared the Arabs to an eagle who looked upon a mountain where birds take shelter at night and stay in their nests at the foot of it. In the morning the birds recognized that the eagle is preying upon them. Whenever a bird became separated from the rest, the eagle snatched him. When the birds saw him [doing this], they did not take off out of fear ... If they had taken off all at once, they would have repelled him. The worst thing that could happen to them would be that all would escape save one. But if each group acted in turn and took off separately, they all perished. This was the similarity between them and the Iranians."[35]

Rostam, however, did not agree with Yazdegerd and then told him: "O king, let me [act in my own way]. The Arabs still dread the Iranians as long as you do not arouse them against me. It is to be hoped that my good fortune will last and that God will save us the trouble." Rostam then said: "We should employ the right ruse," he insisted. "In war, patience is superior to haste, and the order of the day is now patience. To fight one army after another is better than a single [and total] defeat and is also harder on our enemy." Yazdegerd, however, was too young and stubborn to listen to Rostam.[36]

Before the Muslim Arabs and the Sasanians engaged in battle, Rostam tried to negotiate with the Arabs. He therefore sent them a letter saying:

「 "In the presence of the pure Lord of the world we may not stand without fear and reverence, for it is through him that the revolving heavens endure and all his governance is justice and charity. May there be blessings from him on the monarch who is the adornment of his crown, throne and seal, who by his Farr holds Ahriman [the spirit of evil] enthralled, the lord of the sword and the sublime crown. This deplorable vent has occurred and to no purpose has this grievous thing, this struggle, come to pass. Tell me this, who is your king? What man are you and what is your religion and way of life? Over whom do you seek to triumph, you, naked commander of a naked army? With a loaf of bread you are satisfied yet remain hungry. You have neither elephants nor platforms nor baggage nor gear. Mere existence in Iran would be enough for you, since crown and ring belong to another, one who possesses elephants and treasures, Farr and sublime rank. His forebears from ancestor to ancestor have all been renowned kings. When he is visible, there is no moon in the sky. There is no monarch of his stature on earth. When he laughs at a feast with his lips open and teeth shining like silver, he gives away what is the ransom of an Arab chief without any loss to his treasury. His hounds, panthers and falcons number twelve thousand, all dight with golden bells and earrings. From a diet of camel's milk and lizards the Arabs have come so far as to aspire to the Kayanian throne. Is there no shame in your eyes? Do feeling and honour not lie on the path of your wisdom? With a countenance such as yours, such birth, such sentiments and spirit, do you aspire to such a crown and such a throne? If you seek to possess some portion of the world you will not make over-boastful claims. Send us some man to speak for you, someone of experience, a warrior of understanding, of the kind who may tell us what your religion is and who your guide is upon the royal throne. I shall send a cavalier to the Shah requesting him to grant you what you desire. And now do not attempt to make war on so great a monarch, for it is in his hands that the outcome of it will lie. Observe well the contents of his letter filled with good counsel; do not bind up the eyes and ears of wisdom."[37] 」

After having read the letter, the Arabs did as Rostam asked and sent a man named Zuhrah. However, the negotiations with him did not go well, which made Rostam ask for another messenger, and thus a man named Mughirah ibn Shubah was sent. Rostam then told Mughirah: "We are firmly established in the land, victorious over our enemies, and noble among nations. None of the kings has our power, honor, dominion." While Rostam was talking, Mughirah interrupted him and said: "If you need our protection, then be under our protection, and pay the poll tax out of hand in humility; otherwise it is the sword." Feeling greatly insulted and angered, Rostam threatened Mughirah and said: "Dawn will not break upon you tomorrow before I kill you all".[38]

Rostam, while preparing to face the Arab army, wrote a letter to his brother Farrukhzad, telling him to gather an army and then go to Azerbaijan where he should pray for him. Rostam also reminded Farrukhzad that Yazdegerd III was the only legacy left from the Sasanians.[39] Rostam then set out from Ctesiphon in command of a large Sasanian force to confront the Arab-Muslim army of Caliph Umar on the western bank of the Euphrates River at the plains of al-Qādisiyyah, a now abandoned city in southern Mesopotamia, southwest of al-Hillah and al-Kūfah in Iraq.

Death

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There are multiple accounts detailing the death of Rostam, but all of them state that he perished during the battle.

One account states that Rostam was found dead in the sandstorm with over 600 wounds on his body.[40] However, the Persians were not aware of his death and continued to fight. The Sassanid right wing counter-attacked and gained its lost position, as the Muslims' left wing retreated back to their original position. The Muslims' left center, now under Qa’qa's command, when denied the support of their left wing, also retreated back to its original position.[41] A version from al-Ya'qubi further elaborates that Dhiraar bin Al-Azwar, Tulayha, Amru bin Ma'adi Yakrib and Kurt bin Jammah al-Abdi were the men that discovered the corpse of Rostam.[42][43] Two additional narratives also exist, but both have been suggested to likely be the untrustworthy inventions of later story-tellers intending to mock and romanticize the incident respectively. They are as follows:

  1. During the final day of the battle, there was a heavy sandstorm facing the Sasanian army. Rostam used a camel loaded with weapons as shelter to avoid the sandstorm. Not knowing that Rostam was behind, Hilal ibn Ullafa accidentally cut the girdle of the load on the camel. The weapons fell on Rostam and broke his back leaving him half dead and paralyzed. Hilal beheaded Rostam and shouted "I swear by the God of Kaaba that I have killed Rostam." Shocked by the head of their legendary leader dangling before their eyes, the Sassanid soldiers were demoralized, and the commanders lost control of the army. Many Sassanid soldiers were slain in the chaos, with some escaping through the river, and finally the rest of the army surrendered. However, due to the presence of inconsistencies, literary devices, and comedic elements, it has been suggested that this account is unreliable and highly improbable, with even the identity the Arab soldier that delivered the death blow being disputed.[1]
  2. A second account, likely developed in response to the first, instead has Rostam face the Arab commander, Sa'd, in personal combat. During the fight, Rostam is temporarily blinded by the sandstorm which gives his opponent an opportunity to strike and kill him.[1]

Aftermath

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The defeat of Rostam's army heavily demoralized the people of the Sasanian Empire. Soon, after Rostam's death, many more Sasanian veterans were killed, including: Piruz Khosrow, Shahrvaraz Jadhuyih, Mardanshah in 642, and Siyavakhsh and Muta of Dailam in 643. In 651, Yazdegerd III was murdered by Mahuy Suri, and the Arabs conquered Khorasan soon after.[要出典]

Personality and skills

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The Shahnameh describes him as: "A sagacious, warlike and one who had been a conqueror. He was a calculator of the stars, of great perception; and he listened deeply to what his counsellors advised."[37]

Christensen describes him as: "A man endowed with extraordinary energy, a good administrator and a fine general."[44]

家系図

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凡例
橙色
 シャーハーンシャー
黄色
 王
Bawi
シャープール
ヴィンドゥーヤ（英語版）ヴィスタム
ファッルフ・ホルミズドTiruyihVinduyih
ロスタム・ファッロフザードファッルフザード（英語版）
ShahramSurkhab IIsfandyadhバハラームFarrukhan

脚注

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注釈

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引用

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  1. ^ a b c d e Lewental 2017b.
  2. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 26–27.
  3. ^ a b Shahbazi 1989, pp. 180–182.
  4. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 147.
  5. ^ a b Pourshariati 2008, p. 149.
  6. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 146–173.
  7. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 152.
  8. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 149–151.
  9. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 173.
  10. ^ Howard-Johnston 2010.
  11. ^ a b c Shahbazi 2005.
  12. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 178, 209.
  13. ^ a b Pourshariati 2008, p. 209.
  14. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 181, 209.
  15. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 182–3.
  16. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 185, 205.
  17. ^ Daryaee 2014, p. 36.
  18. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 204–205.
  19. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 204.
  20. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 205–206.
  21. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 206, 210.
  22. ^ a b c d e Pourshariati 2008, p. 210.
  23. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 209–210.
  24. ^ Gignoux 1987, p. 190.
  25. ^ a b c Pourshariati 2008, p. 211.
  26. ^ a b c Pourshariati 2008, p. 218.
  27. ^ Daryaee 2018, p. 258.
  28. ^ a b Pourshariati 2008, p. 219.
  29. ^ Daryaee 2010, p. 51.
  30. ^ Frye 1983, p. 171.
  31. ^ Kia 2016, p. 284.
  32. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 257.
  33. ^ Lewental 2017a, p. 257.
  34. ^ a b Pourshariati 2008, pp. 221–222.
  35. ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 224, 225.
  36. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 225.
  37. ^ a b Ferdowsi 2012.
  38. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 227, 228.
  39. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 229.
  40. ^ Citation error. See inline comment how to fix. [要検証 – ノート]
  41. ^ Citation error. See inline comment how to fix. [要検証 – ノート]
  42. ^ Citation error. See inline comment how to fix. [要検証 – ノート]
  43. ^ Citation error. See inline comment how to fix. [要検証 – ノート]
  44. ^ Pourshariati 2008, p. 496.

参考文献

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先代
ファッルフ・ホルミズド 		アードゥルバーダガーンとホラーサーンのスパーフベド
631年 – 636年 		次代
ファッルフザード（英語版）


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