Wikipedia

Draft:Atari 400

Atari 400
Logo Atari, Inc.
Atari 400
DeveloperJay Miner (lead, hardware), Joe Decuir (ANTIC), George McLeod (CTIA), Doug Neubauer (POKEY), Scott Shiffman (hardware), Alan Miller and Howard Bornstein (operating system),[1] Kevin McKinsey and Hugh Lee (case),[2] Shepardson Microsystems, Inc. (Atari BASIC)
ManufacturerAtari, Inc.
Release date United States November 1979
 United Kingdom August 1981
 Germany August 1981
 Italy Autumn 1981
Introductory price United States $549.99
 United Kingdom £345
 Germany 1,495 DM
 Italy 985,000 ₤
DiscontinuedAugust 1983
CPUMOS 6502 @ 1.79 MHz (NTSC)
MOS 6502 @ 1.77 MHz (PAL)
Memory8 KB DRAM (from November 1979)
16 KB DRAM (optional from early 1981)
GraphicsVarious text and graphics modes
8 monochrome sprites ("Player" and "Missiles")
Color selection from a palette of 128 colors (CTIA) or 256 colors (GTIA)
Sound4 sound generators (output via TV), built-in speaker for keyboard click and system beep

The Atari 400 is a home computer by the American manufacturer Atari, Inc. It is based on the MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor.

Introduced in late 1979 initially in North America, the computer was marketed as an affordable entry-level device for gaming and learning. Through educational partnerships, the release of the game Star Raiders, and the expansion of its dealer network, Atari steadily increased the computer's recognition. By mid-1981, it became available in Europe, with distribution in West Germany handled by Atari's Hamburg branch.

With its sibling model, the Atari 800, a compatible device aimed at advanced users, Atari became the global leader in the home computer market by late 1982 but quickly lost significant market share to competitors. Production of the Atari 400 ceased in mid-1983, around the time its successor, the Atari 600XL, was announced. Approximately two million units of the Atari 400 and 800 combined were sold worldwide.

Shortly after its launch, the Atari 400 was considered a milestone in home computing history, making computer technology accessible to novices through its user-friendly design and robust construction.

History

edit
 
Atari's successful Video Computer System (VCS), later renamed Atari 2600, with TIA chip

During the final development phase of the Atari VCS, Atari began planning a successor in early 1977. Engineers focused on enhancing the Television Interface Adaptor (TIA), a highly integrated graphics chip in the VCS, promising more complex and visually sophisticated games with reduced development effort.[3]

Development and Prototypes

edit

In 1977, Atari presented a hand-wired prototype of an enhanced TIA to its management. Feasibility studies on combining this Alphanumeric Television Interface Controller (ANTIC) with other electronic components revealed potential beyond a mere gaming console. An integrated keyboard for programming and controlling external devices for data transfer appeared both technically and economically viable.[3]

Atល At that time, modular design and programming capabilities were limited to expensive computers used in business and research, such as those by IBM or Digital Equipment Corporation. More affordable home computers like the Altair 8800, TRS-80, PET 2001, and Apple II were less user-friendly, less reliable, and still costly compared to next-generation gaming consoles. With budget-conscious, tech-novice users in mind, Atari abandoned plans for an ANTIC-based gaming console in favor of an affordable, innovative home computer. It was designed to be easy and safe for beginners to use with standard televisions without requiring technical expertise.[3] The system also needed to support quick and convenient loading of games and applications similar to the cartridges used in gaming consoles.[4]

Low production costs were a priority, and initial plans for backward compatibility with Atari VCS games were quickly dropped. In August 1977, Atari's management approved the technical specifications proposed by the lead developers and allocated additional funding and personnel to the home computer project, internally codenamed Colleen.[5]

Project Candy

edit
 
Main processor of the Atari 400: MOS 6502 in a DIL package

Initial designs for the device, codenamed Candy, focused on running cartridge-based games using joysticks, reverting to the original gaming console concept. A November 1977 feasibility study omitted interfaces for peripherals and expansion options, as in the Colleen project, and even questioned the inclusion of a keyboard. By January 1978, with the ANTIC chip finalized and efforts shifting to the Color Television Interface Adaptor (CTIA) and Potentiometer and Keyboard Integrated Circuit (POKEY),[1] Atari decided to include a serial interface for external peripherals and a keyboard. This was driven by the need for complex game interaction and the additional goal of a learning computer, particularly for children, requiring a splash-proof, non-swallowable membrane keyboard.[2] Final work on the custom chips and their integration with the MOS 6502 processor continued until late March, with development costs exceeding $10 million.[6]

Parallel to case design, Atari explored high-level programming languages. They chose BASIC, a beginner-friendly language, for user programming. Lacking the capacity for in-house development within a six-month deadline, and with Microsoft BASIC incompatible with an 8 KB ROM cartridge, Atari contracted Shepardson Microsystems on October 6, 1978, to develop a tailored Atari BASIC.[7]

Renaming to Atari 400

edit

In November 1978, with the memory configuration set at a standard 4 KB, Atari changed the unofficial name Candy to the official Atari 400, reflecting the memory size, with the double zero indicating it as the base device for its peripherals. On December 6, 1978, the home computer project, including the Atari 400 and 800, was publicly announced in a prominent article in The New York Times.[8]

 
Presentation at the Winter CES 1979

Atari offered a first look at its partially unfinished product line at the Winter CES in Las Vegas in January 1979.[9] The Atari 400 was displayed as a prototype with a temporary case alongside the Atari 410 program recorder.[8] A production-ready Atari 400 was showcased to a larger audience at the 4th West Coast Computer Faire in San Francisco in May.[10] At the Summer CES in Chicago, Atari announced a suggested retail price of $550.[11]

In June, final technical work was completed, and the computer passed electromagnetic compatibility tests by the Federal Communications Commission, a prerequisite for U.S. sales.[12] Declining component costs allowed Atari to increase the factory-installed memory from 4 KB to 8 KB, though the product name remained unchanged.[8] Production, which cost approximately $100 million, began in October 1979 at Atari’s Sunnyvale, California, factory, delayed by a shortage of components in the rapidly growing home computer industry.[13]

Marketing

edit

Well before its launch, Atari promoted the Atari 400 as a general-purpose home computer, particularly for young, budget-conscious beginners, emphasizing its ease of use without requiring prior computer knowledge.[14]

Market launch

edit
 
Initial marketing through Sears

The first batch of Atari 400 computers was offered in November 1979 through a test marketing campaign in the Sears Roebuck catalog and select retail stores.[15][16] For $549.99, buyers received the computer, power supply, connection materials, a BASIC programming cartridge, and a programming manual.[17]

Shortly after the launch, Atari showcased its computers and entertainment software, such as Star Raiders, at trade shows, establishing new distribution channels.[18] Extensive, long-term advertising campaigns began in the second quarter of 1980.[19] By mid-1980, the Atari computers’ popularity prompted third-party manufacturers to develop hardware and software, recognizing significant market potential.[20]

Expansion into the education sector

edit

In addition to producing and distributing entertainment software, Atari intensified efforts to place its home computers in North American educational institutions, a market previously-dominated by the Apple II and Commodore PET. The strategy was based on the assumption that students familiar with Atari computers in school would later choose them for personal use.[21] Special educational discounts and software like the Talk & Teach Cassette Courseware were introduced early on.[22][23] Starting in mid-1980,[24] Atari collaborated with IBM’s Science Research Associates, which promoted computer-based education and handled educational distribution for Atari. This partnership included a discount where purchasing an Atari 800 provided a free Atari 400 for educational institutions from elementary schools to universities.[25] Atari later introduced a similar “3 for 2” deal, offering a free Atari 400 with the purchase of two Atari 400s or 800s for schools.[26]

Reported sales figures for the Atari 400 and 800 combined in 1979 and 1980 range from 50,000[27] to 300,000 units.[28] Revenues for 1980 alone amounted to approximately $20 million.[29]

Mass marketing

edit

After a temporary price increase to $629.95,[30] Atari reduced the price of the 8 KB Atari 400 to $499.95 in early 1981 as part of an aggressive marketing campaign.[31][32] This was in response to competition from models like the Apple II Plus (16 KB RAM, $1,195), Tandy Color Computer (4 KB and 16 KB versions for $399 and $599), and the TI-99/4 (16 KB RAM, $1,150),[33] as well as the emerging low-cost Commodore VIC-20 (5 KB RAM, $299).[34] A 16 KB version of the Atari 400 was introduced for $630 to compete with higher-end models.[35] Unlike the Atari 800, the Atari 400 lacked user-accessible expansion slots, requiring professional upgrades in certified workshops for memory expansion.[36]

By mid-1981, despite persistent supply issues and minor accessory problems, Atari computers established themselves in a market dominated by Tandy, Apple, and Commodore.[37] Mid-1981 revenues reached $10 million, though production losses were similarly high.[38] To meet growing demand and pursue global marketing, Atari expanded its management team in April 1981[39] and revised its marketing strategy in May 1981. The Atari 400, previously sold with BASIC and a manual, was offered standalone for $399, with optional beginner-friendly expansion packs for programming (Atari Programmer), entertainment (Atari Entertainer), education (Atari Educator), and data communication (Atari Communicator).[35][40] By August 1981, revenues reached $13 million, achieving profitability.[41]

Atari invested in customer service, dealer training, and software support,[37] including frequent releases of in-house programs and games, publication of technical documentation for third-party developers,[42] and support for independent programmers through programming competitions with significant prizes,[43] technical training at Acquisition Centers, and the establishment of the Atari Program Exchange (APX). APX enabled inexperienced software developers to distribute their programs through Atari’s extensive North American dealer network.[44]

International distribution

edit

Following U.S. success, Atari entered the lucrative European market in the summer of 1981. The launch in the UK (£345),[45] France, Italy (985,000 ₤),[46] and the Benelux countries was accompanied by extensive print advertising and specialized exhibitions.[47]

In West Germany, starting in August 1981, the Atari Elektronik Vertriebsgesellschaft mbH, previously responsible for Atari 2600 marketing since 1980, handled distribution and customer service. Marketing the “personal computers,” as Atari Germany officially called them, required significant investment in advertising, sales training, and service. Atari placed ads in print media, similar to its video game promotions.[48] The computers were sold through mail order, specialty stores, and major department store chains like Horten and Karstadt.[49] The suggested retail price for the Atari 400 was 1,495 DM, the Atari 410 data recorder cost 289 DM, and the BASIC cartridge was 272 DM.[50]

During the international expansion, Atari responded to intensifying competition, particularly in North America, with technical revisions, including an updated operating system (OS Version B)[51] and a debugged BASIC version.[52] In 1981, Atari reportedly sold about 300,000 home computers, establishing the Atari 400 and 800 as mass-market products and making Atari the U.S. market leader.[53][54]

Price wars and market leadership

edit

Low-cost computers like the Sinclair ZX81 put pressure on Atari in 1982, leading to a $50 price reduction for the Atari 400 in June,[55] followed by a further drop to $299 in July.[56] In West Germany, aggressive pricing by Commodore, particularly with the VC 20, prompted Atari Germany to drastically cut the Atari 400’s price from 1,495 DM to 995 DM in August 1982.[57]

 
In 1983, Atari Germany hired Dagmar Berghoff (pictured in April 2004) as a spokesperson for a programming course

From early autumn 1982, Atari shifted from direct price cuts to purchase-related discount campaigns, offering “software coupons” worth up to $60 on Atari products.[58] Atari also expanded its U.S. customer service network in 1982,[59] with Atari Service Centers providing consultation, repairs, and upgrades to the GTIA graphics chip and revised operating system.[60] These centers enabled profitable sales through large retail chains like J. C. Penney, Kmart, and Toys "R" Us, which lacked qualified staff for consultation or warranty services.[61] This mass-market-focused strategy led to approximately 600,000 home computer sales in 1982, with around 400,000 being Atari 400s,[62] and a total of 1.2 million Atari 400 and 800 units sold, securing Atari’s market leadership.[63][64]

While Atari maintained its U.S. market leadership, its West German market share was only 15% in June 1982.[65] By the end of 1982, approximately 6,000 Atari 400[66] units were sold in West Germany, compared to 50,000 VC 20 units by Commodore.[67] Due to Commodore’s price pressure, Atari Germany’s high investments yielded slow returns, and the national video game market leader was, according to then-managing director Klaus Ollmann, “not happy” with its home computer division.[68][69] In mid-1983, Atari Germany introduced a promotional “Computer Compact Package,” including the computer, a BASIC module, the Atari 410 data recorder, a programming course narrated by Dagmar Berghoff, and a cassette game collection for under 1,000 DM.[70]

Successor announcement and sell-offs

edit

In Q2 1983, Atari introduced the Atari 1200XL, part of the new XL series with 64 KB RAM and a new case design.[71] Due to compatibility issues with its predecessors, the 1200XL saw limited success and was only briefly available in the U.S. Meanwhile, sales of the Atari 400 and 800 surged due to price reductions and compatibility reliability.[72] By May 1983, the Atari 400’s suggested retail price fell below $200, initiating a sell-off,[73] which accelerated with the announcement of the Atari 600XL at the Summer CES in Chicago.[74] Production of the Atari 400 ceased in August 1983,[75] and clear-out sales began in favor of the Atari 600XL.[76] The Yankee Group estimated that 155,000 units were sold in the U.S. in 1983.[77] In total, approximately two million Atari 400 and 800 units were sold.[78]

Modern Reproductions

edit

The Atari 400’s straightforward architecture and extensive documentation allow for miniaturized reproductions using modern technology. In 2014, a FPGA implementation, initially a feasibility study, demonstrated practical utility as a compact, reliable, and portable alternative to the original hardware, suitable for battery operation.[79]

Technical Details

edit

The Atari 400’s case contains four printed circuit boards and a sturdy aluminum die-cast enclosure for electromagnetic shielding. The main board houses the POKEY chip, ROM, I/O components, and peripheral connectors, with slots for smaller boards containing the 6502 CPU, GTIA, ANTIC, RAM, voltage regulator, and TV signal generation components. The standard package included the computer, an external power supply, and a user manual.

 Antenna cable connectorPower-off switch when module slot cover is openCPU card slotRAM card slotCartridge slotPOKEY chipMOS 6520 (PIA) I/O chipRead-only memory (ROM)Daughterboard connectorKeyboard connectorController portsInternal speaker connectorPower indicator (red LED)SIO portPower switchRF modulatorTV channel selector switchMainboard connectorPower connector
Main and daughter boards of the Atari 400 (PAL version)
Main and daughter boards of an Atari 400 (PAL version). Hover over components to identify them and click for more information.
 GTIA graphics chipANTIC graphics chipMOS 6502 main processor (CPU)
CPU and 16 KB RAM card of the Atari 400
CPU and 16 KB RAM card of an Atari 400 (PAL version). Hover over components to identify them and click for more information.

Main Processor

edit
Main article: MOS Technology 6502

The Atari 400 is powered by the 8-bit MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor, commonly used in contemporary computers. The CPU can address a 64 KB address space, setting the theoretical maximum RAM. The system clock is 1.77 MHz for PAL systems and 1.79 MHz for NTSC systems.

Custom Chips for Graphics and Sound

edit
Main articles: ANTIC, GTIA, and POKEY

The Atari 400’s architecture relies on three Atari-developed custom chips: Alphanumeric Television Interface Controller (ANTIC), Graphic Television Interface Adaptor (GTIA) (and its predecessor CTIA), and Potentiometer and Keyboard Integrated Circuit (POKEY). These chips are designed for flexibility and reduce CPU load.

 
Combination of two graphics modes (large and normal text) using a display list interrupt

The ANTIC and CTIA/GTIA chips generate the display for a TV or monitor, using data from a “display list” in RAM. The CTIA/GTIA supports up to eight monochrome sprites (“Players” and “Missiles”), integrated into the ANTIC-generated background image with user-defined overlap rules and collision detection for interactive gaming.[80] Together, ANTIC and CTIA/GTIA offer unmatched display flexibility compared to other home computers of the era.[81] The POKEY chip handles four-channel sound generation, keyboard input, and the Serial Input Output (SIO) interface for peripheral communication.[82]

These highly integrated LSI chips reduce component count, saving cost and space. Their unpublished designs prevented cost-effective replication, deterring illegal cloning.[83]

The PAL, NTSC, and SECAM standards are supported through different CPU configurations, modified ANTIC (NTSC: C012296, PAL: C014887) and GTIA (NTSC: C014805, PAL: C014889, SECAM: C020120) chips, and tailored operating system versions.[84]

Overview of graphics modes provided by the Atari 400 operating system[85]
Graphics Mode Display Type Resolution (Pixels) Colors Memory Requirement (Bytes)
0 Normal Text 40 × 24 2 992
1 Large Text 20 × 24 5 672
2 20 × 12 5 420
3 Pixel Graphics 40 × 24 4 432
4 80 × 48 2 696
5 4 1176
6 160 × 96 2 2184
7 4 8138
8 320 × 192 2
9 GTIA Modes 80 × 192 16
10 9
11 16

Memory and Memory Allocation

edit

The address space accessible by the CPU and ANTIC is segmented into various sections, typically represented in hexadecimal notation with a $ prefix for clarity. Addresses range from $0000 to $FFFF (0 to 65,535 in decimal).

The $0000 to $7FFF range is reserved for RAM, with $0000 to $3FFF corresponding to the maximum factory-installed 16 KB RAM. Expansions up to 48 KB extend to $BFFF. When a cartridge is inserted, the 8 KB range from $A000 to $BFFF (left-hand cartridge slot) is disabled, and the cartridge’s ROM is mapped in, reducing available RAM by 8 KB for cartridge-based programs like Atari BASIC. Hardware registers, including those for custom chips, occupy $D000 to $D7FF, followed by floating-point routines ($D800 to $DFFF) and the operating system ($E000 to $FFFF). The $C000 to $CFFF range is reserved for future Atari system software but can be used for additional RAM or alternative OS components.[86]

Upon startup, the CPU reads the ROM-based operating system, initializing the Atari 400 and connected peripherals. Without cartridges or executable mass storage, the system launches the Atari Memo Pad (or OS Blackboard Mode), a basic text input program without saving capabilities.[87]

Input and Output Interfaces

edit

The Atari 400 features four controller ports on the front, a coaxial RF antenna connector for TV output, a cartridge slot for ROM cartridges, and a proprietary Serial Input Output (SIO) port for “intelligent” peripherals with identification numbers. The SIO uses a custom Atari protocol and connector system, allowing peripherals like printers and disk drives with dual SIO ports to be daisy-chained using a single cable type—one port for computer communication (serial bus input) and the other for additional devices (serial bus extender).[88] Standard interfaces like RS-232 and Centronics are supported via the optional Atari 850 interface module.

 Cartridge slot coverCartridge slot cover release buttonJoystick ports 1 to 4SIO port for external devicesPower switchPower supply connectorTV channel selector switchAntenna cable
Atari 400 input and output interfaces
Input and output interfaces of the Atari 400. Hover over components to identify them and click for more information.

Peripheral Devices

edit

The Atari 400 is compatible with later Atari XL and XE peripherals that do not require the system bus. The following focuses on peripherals available from late 1979 to late 1983. Some peripherals require at least 16 KB RAM due to memory-intensive driver software.

Mass Storage

edit
Main articles: Atari 8-bit family § Storage, Atari 8-bit family § Storage_3, and Atari 8-bit family § Storage_4

In the 1980s, Western home computers primarily used cassette tapes and disk drives for data storage, with hard drives and removable drives used in professional settings. Cassette tapes were inexpensive but slow, while disk drives were faster and more reliable but costly.[89] The Atari 400 supported cassette and disk systems upon release.

Cassette Systems

edit
  •  
    Program recorder
  •  
    Cassette with computer program

Unlike contemporaries like the TRS-80 or Sinclair ZX81, the Atari 400 cannot use standard cassette recorders. It requires the Atari 410 program recorder, tailored to its serial interface, with an average data transfer rate of 600 bit/s, storing 50 KB on a 30-minute cassette.[90] The Atari 410 features a stereo tape head, allowing simultaneous playback of music or instructions during data reading, output via the SIO cable and POKEY chip to the TV.[91] For cost and space savings, it lacks a speaker and a second SIO port, making it the last device in a peripheral chain.[92]

Disk Systems

edit
 
Atari 810

Shortly after the Atari 400 and 800 launch, the Atari 810 floppy disk drive, compatible with the SIO interface, became available. It writes 5.25-inch disks in single density with 720 sectors of 128 bytes, storing 90 KB per side, at an average data transfer rate of 6,000 bit/s—ten times faster than the Atari 410.[93] Various versions with different system software and drive mechanics were produced.

For a short period in North America, the more advanced Atari 815 disk drive, with dual drive mechanics and double-density storage (180 KB per 5.25-inch disk side), was available. Its complex manual assembly and high $1,500 price, coupled with reliability issues, led to its discontinuation after about 60 units.[94]

From mid-1982, third-party Atari-compatible disk drives appeared, including Percom’s high-performance drives,[95][96] Rana’s drives with track displays,[97] and Astra’s dual drives.[98]

 Disk slot doorDisk slot door release buttonPower switchStatus indicatorPower indicatorSIO portSIO portDrive number selector switchPower supply connector
Front and rear views of the Atari 810 disk drive in the “garage door” version, with a Tandon drive mechanism. Hover over components to identify them and click for more information.

Output Devices

edit
  •  
    Thermal printer
  •  
    Interface module

Unlike the Atari 800, the Atari 400 lacks a monitor output port and uses a built-in RF modulator to connect to standard color or black-and-white TVs. For text and graphics output, Atari offered the thermal Atari 822 printer and dot matrix Atari 820 and 825 printers. Third-party printers require the Atari 850 interface module for RS-232 or Centronics compatibility with brands like Epson and Tally.[99]

Third-party output devices include The Alien Group’s The Voicebox for speech synthesis,[100] a DIY 3D glasses system for stereoscopic TV viewing,[101] and a programmable robotic arm by Myotis Systems.[102]

Input devices

edit
Main article: Atari 8-bit family § Peripherals

The Atari 400 keyboard consists of three laminated plastic films. The top and bottom films have metallic contacts under the keys, interconnected in a predefined pattern. The middle, thick, elastic film serves as an electrical insulator and return spring. At the key positions, it has holes large enough to allow current to flow between the top and bottom films when a key is pressed. As the keys function as closers, they are ergonomically poor and lack a tactile click, making efficient, prolonged work nearly impossible. The keyboard includes 56 individual keys, a space bar, and four function keys.[103]

All other input devices connect to one or more of the four controller ports on the front of the computer housing. These include joysticks from various manufacturers, [104] paddle controllers, specialized keypads,[105] the Trackball controller from TG Products,[106] and graphics tablets from Kurta Corporation [107] and Koala Technologies Corp.[108]

 Cartridge slot coverCartridge slotVisible parts of the internal aluminum die-cast shieldingVisible parts of the internal aluminum die-cast shieldingPower disconnect switch for open cartridge slot coverButton to open the cartridge slot coverPower indicator light
Atari 400 with open cartridge slot cover
Atari 400 (PAL version) with open cartridge slot cover. Hover over components with the mouse to identify them and click for further information.

Expansions

edit

The manufacturer did not initially provide for the connection of external expansions not based on the SIO interface. However, the Atari 400 can be upgraded through internal modifications, such as replacing the factory-installed 8 KB or 16 KB RAM cards. Installing additional hardware requires opening the computer and often soldering connections, which is manageable with some technical skill but voided the warranty at the time. The following discussion focuses solely on commercial products for the two most significant expansion areas: the keyboard and memory.

Keyboard

edit
 
Atari 400 with B Key 400 replacement keyboard

For its intended audience of children and teenagers, the durable, splash-proof flat keyboard adequately served its purpose. However, it was entirely unsuitable for applications beyond gaming due to its lack of ergonomic design and tactile feedback, which hindered efficient data entry. As a result, a thriving market for replacement keyboards with mechanical keys emerged starting in 1982. Models like the B Key 400 from Inhome Software [109] and KB 400 from Atto-Soft [110] could be permanently installed in place of the membrane keyboard. Alternatively, models like the Joytyper 400 from Microtronics [111] and the Sidewriter from Screen Sonics [112] could be externally connected or placed atop the computer. Their comfort often matched that of the typewriter-style keyboard of the Atari 800.[113]

Memory

edit

With the initially installed 8 KB of RAM, little more than gaming was possible, as the memory was insufficient even for incorporating the highest-resolution graphics mode in BASIC. Even the maximum Atari-offered upgrade of 16 KB quickly pushed users to their limits, especially when using a disk drive for loading and saving BASIC programs. The memory-intensive Disk Operating System (DOS) consumed a significant portion of the RAM alongside the user's BASIC program. While the Atari 800 could be easily upgraded to a comfortable 48 KB of RAM using accessible expansion slots and Atari’s 16 KB RAM cards, the Atari 400 had only a single, deeply recessed slot for a RAM card, necessitating the use of cards with more than 16 KB of RAM [114] Consequently, third-party manufacturers like Mosaic[115] and Axlon[116] introduced 32 KB RAM cards in early 1981. Later, models with technical advancements like bank-switching provided up to 64 KB of RAM.[117] With such upgrades, along with keyboard enhancements and an additional monitor port, the Atari 400’s application scope—aside from the missing right cartridge slot—became nearly indistinguishable from that of the Atari 800.[118] However, this blurring of boundaries in favor of the significantly cheaper Atari 400 conflicted with Atari’s marketing strategy of two complementary devices. Official product descriptions consistently listed 16 KB as the maximum upgrade for the Atari 400 and warned that installing more than 16 KB of RAM would void the warranty.[119] Higher upgrades from Atari, such as the Atari 400 Home Computer 48K RAM Expansion Kit, were offered only after production ended in the fall of 1983.[120]

Software

edit

As with other home computers of the 1980s, commercial software was distributed on various media. The inexpensive compact cassettes, particularly popular among game manufacturers, were highly susceptible to errors due to the strong mechanical stress on the magnetic tape, and their use was often associated with long loading times. Moreover, certain operating modes, such as the relative addressing advantageous for operating databases, are not possible with data cassettes. In contrast, the programs contained in the much more expensive cartridges in production were available immediately after turning on the computer, which was particularly advantageous for system software and frequently used applications. Diskettes achieved the best compromise between loading time, possible operating modes, reliability, and storage capacity, and their use was supported by the 810 disk drive upon the release of the Atari 400.

The program range for the Atari 400 computer included, in addition to the selection of commercial programs distributed by Atari and APX, software developed by third-party manufacturers and published in magazines and books (listings) for typing in. Commercial programs were offered on cartridge, diskette, and cassette.

Illegal copies always made up a large part of the software in circulation and thus often posed existential economic difficulties for smaller software developers.

As a result, copy protection systems were increasingly used, especially in games as the best-selling software.[121]

System programs

edit
 
After turning on, the operating system generates an editable screen if no cartridges are present or peripherals are connected.

The configuration and initialization of the Atari 400 hardware after powering on or after a reset falls within the scope of the operating system (English operating system, abbreviated OS) stored in read-only memory. After numerous errors in the first OS version became known, Atari released a bug-fixed version with OS-B in 1982. The subroutines of the 10 KB operating system control various system processes that can also be initiated by the user. These include performing input and output operations such as keyboard and joystick polling, floating-point calculations, processing system programs after interrupts, and providing a screen driver to generate the various graphics modes.[122] The starting addresses of the individual subroutines are summarized in a jump table to maintain compatibility with later operating system revisions or new versions. To distinguish it from the operating system of the later XL and XE models, the OS of the Atari 400 is often referred to as Oldrunner.[123]

Programming languages and application programs

edit

Building on the system software, the user-specific use of the Atari 400 in diverse application areas was of great importance. If solving a task with, e.g., commercially available programs was not possible for technical or economic reasons, or if, for example, novel entertainment software was to be produced, this had to be done independently using appropriate programming languages.

Assembly language

edit

Creating time-critical action games and applications in control engineering required optimal use of hardware, particularly memory, in the early 1980s. In the home computer sector, this was only possible through the use of assembly language with corresponding translator programs, the assemblers. Assemblers were often delivered with an associated editor for entering program instructions ("source code"), frequently as a program package with debugger and disassembler for error analysis. In professional development environments, cross-assemblers were often used. This made it possible to create executable programs for home computers on more powerful and user-friendly foreign computer platforms.

Shortly after the release of the Atari computers, only the slow Assembler Editor from Atari, delivered on cartridge, was available. It offered little comfort and could therefore only be used sensibly for smaller projects. Unlike other assemblers, however, it allowed saving the created source files and executable programs on cassette, which was particularly advantageous for many Atari 400 users without a disk station, allowing them to overlook the disadvantages easily. The assemblers needed for professional program development were only available later with Synassembler (Synapse Software), Atari Macro Assembler (Atari), Macro Assembler Editor (Eastern Software House), Edit 6502 (LJK Enterprises), and the powerful MAC 65 (Optimized Systems Software).[124]

Programming beginners often preferred the clear and easy-to-use, but less powerful, high-level programming languages.

Interpreter high-level languages

edit
Main articles: Atari BASIC, BASIC A+, and Atari Microsoft BASIC
 
Atari 400 with Atari BASIC cartridge plugged in
 
Atari BASIC input screen with example program for a For-Next loop.

In addition to the BASIC published by Atari, there were two others: The Microsoft BASIC that formed the quasi-standard at the time (as an adaptation by Atari) and a product compatible downward with Atari BASIC named BASIC A+ from Optimized System Software. Both interpreters require at least 32 KB RAM and a disk drive to operate. In particular, BASIC A+ includes extended editing capabilities, simplifications in the command structure, and supplements many features not implemented in Atari and Microsoft BASIC. This includes, for example, convenient use of Atari sprites ("Player" and "Missiles") through specially provided command words.[125]

The inherent limitations of the interpreter, such as low execution speed and high memory requirement, negatively affected the usability of BASIC programs. These disadvantages can be mitigated by special programs, BASIC compilers. Executable machine programs are generated that run without a BASIC interpreter and thus often allow faster execution. For Atari BASIC, various compilers are available with ABC BASIC Compiler (Monarch Systems), Datasoft BASIC Compiler (Datasoft), and BASM (Computer Alliance).[126]

In addition to the programming language BASIC in its various dialects, the interpreter language Logo was available with the sales start of the Atari 400. Supported by elements like turtle graphics, it enables a child-friendly and interactive introduction to the basics of programming. Similarly oriented in its properties is the later released programming language Atari PILOT. With QS-Forth (Quality Software), Extended fig-Forth (APX)[127] and Data-Soft Lisp (Datasoft)[128] other programming languages join the product range for the Atari 400.

Compiler high-level languages

edit

Interpreter high-level languages are slow in execution, but their source code is easy to read, making error analysis simple. Assembly language, on the other hand, is difficult to learn and master but was essential in the early 1980s for creating fast and memory-efficient programs. As a middle ground, compiler high-level languages established themselves in the home computer sector during the 1980s. The execution speed of the machine programs generated with them was much higher compared to interpreted programs like Atari BASIC, but not quite as high as those achieved by assemblers. These speed disadvantages were often accepted in favor of easier-to-maintain source code.

During the product lifetime until the end of 1983, only APX Pascal[129] was available as a compiler language for Atari 400 users with upgraded devices.

Application software

edit

The program range for Atari computers includes, in addition to programming languages for creating custom applications, only a small selection of pre-made commercial application software compared to the contemporary competitor Apple II. The most well-known application programs include VisiCalc (Visicorp, spreadsheet), The Home Accountant (Continental Software, bookkeeping), Atari Writer (Atari, word processing), Bank Street Writer (Broderbund, word processing), and Letter Perfect (LJK Enterprises, word processing).[130]

Another part of the applications consists of user-developed application programs for the most diverse locations, such as medical practices,[131] photo studios,[132] clothing stores[133] and museums.[134]

Educational programs

edit

In line with the Atari 400's orientation as a gaming and learning computer, there is a wide variety of programs dedicated to computer-assisted teaching of educational content and its subsequent interactive querying. The knowledge to be conveyed is presented in a playful form with constantly increasing difficulty to keep the learner motivated. Great emphasis is placed on age-appropriate presentation, ranging from toddlers to students. For the youngest, animated stories with comic-like characters as accompanying tutors are often used; for adolescents, the content to be queried is dressed in adventure games or action-packed space adventures; for higher-level educational content for students and adults, lexicographically presented knowledge with subsequent querying and success evaluation predominates. The learning areas covered by the software extend to reading and writing, foreign languages, mathematics, technology, music, geography, demography, typing schools, and computer science. The most well-known manufacturers include Atari, APX, Dorsett Educational Systems, Edufun, PDI, and Spinnaker Software.[135]

Games

edit
 
Atari game Star Raiders as a cartridge. The right image shows the internal board with two ROM chips containing the program.

By far the largest part of both commercial and freely available Atari software consists of games. To the early shoot 'em up games like Star Raiders or the board game adaptation 3-D Tic-Tac-Toe, more action games, adventures, and arcade adaptations were added just a year later. Both professional manufacturers and hobby programmers benefited from Atari's publication of technical documentation, programming guides in computer magazines and books, and the now emerging powerful development tools. However, the published titles also included many poor ports of, for example, Apple II games without the unmistakable "Atari look," namely a mixture of various "colorful" and smoothly scrolled graphics, supplemented by typical POKEY music and sound effects.[136]

Among the games released for Atari computers are many that were already considered video game classics in the early 1980s: Star Raiders (1979), Asteroids (1981), and Pac-Man (1982).[137] In particular, the 3D game Star Raiders was seen as a formative experience by many game designers of the time and a reason to choose an Atari computer rather than an Apple II or Commodore PET. Subsequent works such as Miner 2049er (Bill Hogue, Big Five Software, 1982), Eastern Front (1941) (Chris Crawford, APX, 1982), Capture the Flag (Paul Edelstein, Sirius Software, 1983), Archon (John Freeman, Electronic Arts, 1983), and M.U.L.E. (Daniel Bunten, Electronic Arts, 1983) are among the outstanding titles of their time and enabled software houses such as MicroProse and Electronic Arts to rise rapidly to industry giants. [138]

Among the most popular games for Atari computers, besides the Infocom adventures, are mostly shoot 'em up games like Crossfire (Sierra On-Line, 1981) and Blue Max (Synapse Software, 1983), racing games like Pole Position (Atari, 1983), war simulations like Combat Leader (Strategic Simulations, 1983), but also graphic adventures like Excalibur (APX, 1983) and Murder on the Zinderneuf (Electronic Arts, 1983).[139]

Magazines

edit

In the 1980s, alongside specialist books, computer magazines played a significant role for many home computer owners. The often monthly issues contained reviews of new products, programming guides, and software for typing in. They also served as advertising and information platforms, as well as for contacting like-minded individuals.

Magazines specifically dealing with Atari home computers included the English-language Antic, Analog Computing, Atari Connection, and Atari Age; occasional reports and programs for Atari computers were also published in high-circulation magazines such as Byte Magazine, Compute!, and Creative Computing. While the Atari 400 was sold in Germany, information and programs could be found in magazines such as Chip, P.M. Computermagazin, Computer Persönlich, and Mein Home-Computer.

Emulation

edit

After the end of the home computer era in the early 1990s and with the advent of powerful and affordable computing technology in the late 1990s, dedicated enthusiasts increasingly developed programs to emulate home computers and their peripherals. To play old classics from various home computer systems, a single modern system with data images of the corresponding home computer programs was sufficient with the help of emulators. The emergence of emulators thus initiated, among other things, an intensified transfer of otherwise potentially lost software to modern storage media, thereby making an important contribution to the preservation of digital culture.[140]

The most powerful emulators for Windows and Linux systems are considered to be Atari++, Atari800Win Plus, Mess32[141] and Altirra.[142]

Reception

edit

Contemporary

edit

North America

edit

The appearance of the Atari 400 and 800 was received positively throughout. The high-circulation magazine Compute! wrote of a new generation of computers:

With the introduction of the Atari line of computers we are seeing a third generation of microcomputer – not just from the hardware end but also from a marketing approach.

— John Victor, Atari Computers: The Ultimate Teaching Machines?, "Compute!" November-December 1979[143]

The same reviewers further stated that the new devices could best be described as a hybrid between a video game and a computer. They contained the best of both worlds, making them equally a personal computer and a home device. These characteristics predestined the Atari 400 for learning and entertainment purposes.[144] represented a novelty.[145]

The lack of expandability of the Atari 400 was critically assessed, particularly the originally delivered 8 KB RAM would by no means suffice for programming the highly praised Atari BASIC.[146] Due to the modular concept, more connection cables would be needed than, for example, with the compact Commodore PET, which could be a disadvantage, as well as the non-validating saving of programs on cassette.[147] From summer 1980, supply difficulties and the absence of application-oriented software were particularly criticized, and no great future was predicted for the computers by Adam Osborne.[148]

As the Atari computers were able to establish themselves contrary to Osborne's predictions and even rose to market leader, the trade press continued to recommend them mainly for price-conscious households:[149]

Atari has much better graphics, and just about everyone says that if you’re only interested in games, that’s the machine to get.

— Jerry Pournelle, Computers for Humanity., Byte Magazine. July 1982[150]

In agreement with the trade press, game authors such as David Fox (programmer at Lucasfilm Games) and Scott Adams (founder of Adventure International) saw the Ataris as the graphically and sonically most powerful devices in the entire home computer market:

User-definable character sets, player-missile graphics, fine scrolling, vertical-blank interrupts, and display-list interrupts can be combined with color mapping to give the Atari a performance edge that will probably never be equaled (except by Atari).

— David Fox, Mitchelle Waite, Computer Animation with Color Registers[151]

The Atari is my personal favorite. In my opinion it is the finest micro available. … I like the capabilities of the machine. It is well-engineered. The graphics and sound capabilities are excellent. The machine is fairly well thought out. It’s well built. The Atari is the one I use at home.

— Scott Adams, Adventuring with the Atari[152]

Over time, Atari's marketing concept also came under criticism, as the capabilities as an application computer were not clearly enough highlighted and supported. Although the Atari computers had enjoyed a good reputation as powerful personal computers since their introduction, at the latest with the discontinuation of the powerful Atari 815 disk drive, the focus of the devices had shifted to the home sector with particular emphasis on the entertainment and education sector. In addition, there were errors in the choice of distribution channels. The shift in sales through large retail chains had prompted smaller specialty stores with corresponding expertise and service offerings to remove Atari computers from their range due to lack of competitiveness. This would have eliminated another important pillar for supplying the computers with powerful application software, so that the Atari 400 was ultimately only perceived and bought as a pure game console.[153] In addition, Atari itself had done nothing to change this situation and, for example, to offer the Atari 400 with more than 16 KB RAM from the factory.[154]

German-speaking area

edit

Shortly after its appearance in Germany, the Atari 400 was characterized by the then highest-circulation computer magazine Chip as a beginner-friendly entry-level device. Positively highlighted were also the stable device execution, the graphical possibilities, the color output, detailed documentation, the already existing large program library along with various programming languages such as Atari PILOT and Atari Assembler, and last but not least the affordable price.[155] Shortly thereafter, the Atari 400 was chosen by the same computer magazine by a wide margin ahead of the Commodore VC 20 and Sinclair ZX81 as the "Computer of the Year 1981":

This device offers the sound and graphics variety that beginners desire when they gain their first experiences in programming games. Those who want to develop professional programs have the right tool in BASIC. For those who find programming too cumbersome, there is a wide selection of programs, either on cassette or plug-in modules. The Atari 400 is thus both a device for learning and for using.

— Die Computer des Jahres. In: Chip. December 1981[156]

At the end of 1982, the magazine Spielbox highlighted the Atari home computers' technical "specialties" in its presentation, including the player-missile graphics. The hardware design of the Atari computers clearly bore the signature of the company that had grown through the development of video games, according to Spielbox.[157] In addition to the beginner-friendliness praised by other reviewers, the lack of expandability and the simply designed keyboard were the most frequent points of criticism:

[The Atari 400] is an ideal entry-level device for beginners. However, the RAM area of 16 kilobytes cannot be expanded further, the keyboard is only equipped with sensors.

— Gilbert Obermair, 1983[158]

Retrospective

edit

Shortly after being replaced by the technically barely changed successor models 600XL and 800XL, the Atari 400 was attested an "excellent construction" that had set a new standard in the home computer market. The "fantastic graphics" were reflected especially in the good games, one of the strengths of the Atari 400.[159] One of the few points of criticism, according to Michael S. Tomczyk[160] and Dietmar Eirich, was the too high price at introduction:

Atari [...] also brought the home computers Atari 400 and Atari 800 to the market very early, which were solid and excellent devices, but unfortunately too expensive in the early phase of home computers.

— Dietmar Eirich and Sabine Quinten-Eirich, 1984[161]

In retrospect, according to Bill Loguidice and Matt Barton, Atari was the first to combine the features of a pure gaming machine with the capabilities of contemporary home computers while ensuring ease of use. One of the main reasons for the success of this demanding task, according to the two authors, was the experience of the Atari engineers already involved in building the successful Atari VCS game console that flowed into the development.[162] As a result, electronic special chips for relieving the main processor were used for the first time in a home computer. Their graphical refinements in the form of, for example, the "Player/Missile Graphics" were pioneering for later devices. The sound properties also belonged to the top quality category at the time due to the use of a special chip, and the Atari 400 thus replaced the Apple II as the best gaming computer.[162][163]

The authors of the internet platform Gamasutra see the release of the game Star Raiders as a decisive reason for the rapidly increasing popularity of the Atari computers within a short time:

Upon release, Star Raiders became the first ‘killer app’ of computer gaming. It was the first computer game that could be called a ‘machine seller’.

— Gamasutra, 2008[164]

Tomczyk holds Atari's original and controversial practices regarding the publication of technical documentation responsible for the permanent lack of powerful application software:

Unfortunately, Atari neutralized their own advantage. To everyone’s shock and dismay, they decided to keep secret vital technical information like memory maps and bus architectures which programmers needed to write software. They then tried to blackmail programmers by indicating that they could get technical information only if they signed up to write Atari-brand software. This alienated the fiercely independent hobbyist/programmer community, and as a result many serious programmers started writing software for other machines instead.

— Michael S. Tomczyk, 1985[160]

A later change in the restrictive information policy could no longer catch up on the backlog that had already arisen. Thus, with advancing time, mainly games appeared for the Atari home computers, which were now increasingly perceived as pure gaming machines:

Many customers thought the Atari 400 and 800 were more expensive versions of the Atari 2600 videogame machine. Some people even doubted whether the Atari 400 and 800 were real computers.

— Michael S. Tomczyk, 1985[160]

Due to the competition created by Atari itself with its in-house game console Atari VCS 2600 and mainly due to emerging competition from Texas Instruments and Commodore with their extensive program libraries in the application area, the sales successes could not be continued.[165] Decisive market shares thus fell back to the Apple II and especially the newly released Commodore 64 from 1983.[166]

The Atari 400 is a permanent exhibit in the Computerspielemuseum Berlin.[167]

Further reading

edit
  • Atari Inc.: Technical Reference Notes. 1982 (archive.org).
  • Atari Inc.: Field Service Manual. (archive.org).
  • Jeffrey Stanton, Robert P. Wells, Sandra Rochowansky, Michael Mellin: Atari Software 1984. The Book Company, 1984, ISBN 0-201-16454-X.
  • Julian Reschke, Andreas Wiethoff: Das Atari Profibuch. Sybex-Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf, 1986, ISBN 3-88745-605-X.
  • Eichler, Grohmann: Atari 600XL/800XL Intern. Data Becker GmbH, 1984, ISBN 3-89011-053-3.
  • Marty Goldberg, Curt Vendel: Atari Inc. – Business is Fun. Syzygy Company Press, 2012, ISBN 978-0-9855974-0-5.

References

edit
  1. ^ a b Goldberg, Marty; Vendel, Curt (2012). Atari Inc. Business is Fun. Syzygy Company Press. p. 454.
  2. ^ a b Goldberg, Marty; Vendel, Curt (2012). Atari Inc. Business is Fun. Syzygy Company Press. p. 462.
  3. ^ a b c Goldberg, Marty; Vendel, Curt (2012). Atari Inc. Business is Fun. Syzygy Company Press. pp. 446–447.
  4. ^ Compute's First Book of Atari. Small System Services, Inc. 1981. p. 5.
  5. ^ Loguidice, Bill; Barton, Matt (2014). Vintage Game Consoles. Routledge Chapman & Hall. p. 56.
  6. ^ Lundell, Allan (August 17, 1981). "Computer Animation". InfoWorld. p. 43. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  7. ^ Wilkinson, Bill; O’Brien, Kathleen; Laughton, Paul (1983). The Atari BASIC Source Book. Compute! Books. pp. 9–10.
  8. ^ a b c Goldberg, Marty; Vendel, Curt (2012). Atari Inc. Business is Fun. Syzygy Company Press. p. 460.
  9. ^ "Atari announces two new Personal Computer Systems". The Intelligent Machines Journal. February 7, 1979. p. 1. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  10. ^ "Impressions of the Computer Faire". The Intelligent Machines Journal. June 11, 1979. p. 8. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  11. ^ Ahl, David (August 1979). "Random Ramblings". Creative Computing. p. 26. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  12. ^ "Byte News". Byte Magazine. November 1979. p. 82. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  13. ^ "Byte News". Byte Magazine. March 1980. p. 110. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  14. ^ "Introducing Atari 400". Merchandising. January 1979. p. 54. ISSN 0362-3920. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  15. ^ "Put an electronic genius to work". Sears Catalog. 1979. p. 654. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  16. ^ Libes, Sol (1980-02-18). TI, HP and Atari. InfoWorld Media Group, Inc.
  17. ^ "Introducing the Atari Personal Computer Systems" (PDF). Atari Inc. 1979. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  18. ^ Garetz, Mark (October 13, 1980). "According to Garetz…". InfoWorld. p. 38. Retrieved August 13, 2025.; Lock, Robert (March–April 1980). "The Consumer Electronics Show". Compute!. p. 4. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  19. ^ Tomczyk, Michael M. (July–August 1980). "Atari's Marketing Vice President Profiles The Personal Computer Market". Compute!. p. 17. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  20. ^ Lock, Robert (July–August 1980). "The Atari Gazette". Compute!. p. 58. Retrieved August 13, 2025.; Blank, George (September 1980). "Image Computer Products". Creative Computing. p. 182. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  21. ^ Libes, Sol (March 1983). "Battle in the Classroom". Byte Magazine. p. 495. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  22. ^ Laurel, Brenda (March 1981). "The Renaissance Kid". Atari Connection. p. 15. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  23. ^ Blank, George (September 1980). "Image Computer Products". Creative Computing. p. 180. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  24. ^ Thronburg, David D.; Burr, Betty J. (1980). Computers and Society.
  25. ^ Libes, Sol (September 1980). "Random BITS". Byte Magazine. p. 168. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  26. ^ "Educators take Note". Byte Magazine. March 1981. p. 68. Retrieved August 13, 2025.; Converse, Teddi (Autumn 1982). "A Small Country School Big On Computers". Atari Connection. p. 3. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  27. ^ Hogan, Thom (September 14, 1981). "State of Microcomputing". InfoWorld. pp. 11–12. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  28. ^ Reimer, Jeremy. "Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures". Retrieved March 29, 2015.
  29. ^ "Marketing pro will head Atari division". InfoWorld. September 20, 1982. p. 10. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  30. ^ Hardside (September 1980). "Advertisement". Byte Magazine. p. 228. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  31. ^ Adams, Russ (1980-12-08). Take Stock in Personal Computing. InfoWorld Media Group, Inc.
  32. ^ Yates, Jean (February 16, 1981). "Electronics Show Focus on Consumer Computers". InfoWorld. p. 1. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  33. ^ Pitre, Boisy G; Loguidice, Bill (10 December 2013). CoCo: The Colorful History of Tandy's Underdog Computer. CRC Press. pp. 32–34. ISBN 978-1-4665-9247-6.
  34. ^ Lock, Robert (October 1981). "The Next Few Months". Compute!. p. 4. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  35. ^ a b "Price Reductions, New Software Announced For Atari Computers". Compute!. June 1981. p. 158. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  36. ^ "Atari: Personal Computers Systems That Grow With You". Compute!. March 1981. p. 5. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  37. ^ a b Yates, Jean (March 2, 1981). "Hot Lines and Holograms". InfoWorld. p. 29. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  38. ^ Hogan, Thom (August 31, 1981). "Today's Chaos". InfoWorld. p. 7. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  39. ^ "New VP Marketing At Atari's Computer Division". Compute!. April 1981. pp. 168–169. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  40. ^ "Atari News". Analog Computing. No. 4. 1981. p. 9. Retrieved August 13, 2025.; "New Products – The Atari 400 Computer System". Atari Connection. September 1981. p. 2. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  41. ^ Hogan, Thom (September 14, 1981). "State of Microcomputing". InfoWorld. pp. 11–12. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  42. ^ Bills, Richard (May 1981). "Hardware Information". Compute!. p. 80. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  43. ^ "Atari Launches Major Software Acquisition Program". Compute!. May 1981. p. 150. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  44. ^ DeWitt, Robert (June 1983). "APX – On top of the heap". Antic. p. 11. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  45. ^ "The new Atari Personal Computers". Ingersoll’s Atari Owners Club Bulletin. July 16, 1981. p. 5. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  46. ^ "Atari: fissati i prezzi, mentre già arrivano le novità" [Atari: prices set, while new products are already arriving] (PDF). MC Microcomputer (in Italian) (2 ed.). October 1981. pp. 19–20. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 28, 2016. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  47. ^ "Computers of the Year". Chip. December 1981. pp. 16–17.
  48. ^ Frank, Guido. "Press meets Atari – Erinnerungen von Renate Knüfer" [Press meets Atari – Memories of Renate Knüfer] (in German). Archived from the original on April 16, 2015. Retrieved June 12, 2018.
  49. ^ Atari Deutschland (July 1982). "Atari Fachhändler" [Atari Specialty Retail]. Chip. p. 46.
  50. ^ "Werbeanzeige" [Advertisement]. Chip (in German). September 1981. p. 101.
  51. ^ Moore, Herb (October–November 1982). "Upgrades Available". Antic. p. 15. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  52. ^ Hanson, Steve (October 1981). "Documented Atari Bugs". Compute!. p. 94. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  53. ^ Dvorak, John C. (June 14, 1982). "Will the marketplace ruin itself?". InfoWorld. p. 57. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  54. ^ Needle, David (September 20, 1982). "400% rise in home-computer sales predicted for 82". InfoWorld. p. 12. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  55. ^ "Atari announces price reductions and new software programs". InfoWorld. June 28, 1982. p. 12. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  56. ^ Silverman, William (July 1982). "Hardware systems, new software suppliers crowd the market as games highlight CES". Merchandising. p. 43. ISSN 0362-3920.
  57. ^ Taschner, Wolfgang (January 1983). "Billig wie noch nie" [Cheaper than ever]. Chip (in German). p. 62.
  58. ^ "Atari Announces Discount Fares To The Computer Age". Atari Connection. Autumn 1982. p. 2. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  59. ^ DeWitt, Robert (November 1983). "Service System". Antic. p. 21. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  60. ^ "Coast to Coast Service for your Atari Home Computer". Atari Connection. Summer 1982. p. 14. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  61. ^ "Home Computer Market Gets Competitive". Byte Magazine. October 1982. p. 458. Retrieved August 13, 2025.; Libes, Sol (August 1982). "Race for Space". Byte Magazine. p. 448. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  62. ^ Faflick, Philip; Grieves, Robert T. (January 3, 1983). "The Hottest-Selling Hardware". Time. p. 37.
  63. ^ Reimer, Jeremy. "Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures". Retrieved March 29, 2015.
  64. ^ Hubner, John; Kistner Jr., William F. (November 28, 1983). "What went wrong at Atari?". InfoWorld. p. 157. Retrieved August 13, 2025.; Caparell, Jim (October–November 1982). "Editorial". Antic. p. 9. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  65. ^ Robertshaw, Nick (June 26, 1982). "EuroVideo - Bright Picture, Bright Future". Billboard. p. EV 8.
  66. ^ "Wer verkaufte wie viele Computer?" [Who sold how many computers?]. P.M. Computerheft (in German). January 1983. p. 67.
  67. ^ Diebold Management Report (March 1983). Diebold Statistik der installierten Informationssysteme in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland nach dem Stand vom 1.1.1983 [Diebold Statistics on Installed Information Systems in the Federal Republic of Germany as of January 1, 1983] (Diebold Deutschland GmbH ed.). p. 6. ISSN 0341-3683.
  68. ^ Frank, Guido. "Klaus Ollmann – Erinnerungen des deutschen Atari Managers" [Klaus Ollmann – Memories of the German Atari Manager]. Archived from the original on April 16, 2015. Retrieved June 12, 2018.
  69. ^ Spahr, Wolfgang (August 21, 1982). "Atari Making Inroads In Germany". Billboard. p. 61. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  70. ^ "Kommt zum Computer!" [Come to the Computer!]. Atari Club Magazin. No. 2. 1983. pp. 8–9. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  71. ^ "Atari 1200XL". Byte Magazine. April 1983. p. 486. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  72. ^ Wise, Deborah (March 7, 1983). "Atari's 2600 game machine gets computer keyboard option". InfoWorld. p. 8. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  73. ^ "Prices continue dropping". Byte Magazine. May 1983. p. 495. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  74. ^ Lemmons, Phil (September 1983). "A bird's-eye view of the latest offerings". Byte Magazine. p. 230. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  75. ^ Mace, Scott (August 1, 1983). "Morgan replaces Kassar as Atari CEO". InfoWorld. p. 3. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  76. ^ "XL Line Debuts". Antic. July 1983. p. 22. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  77. ^ The Yankee Group (1984). Software Strategies: The Home Computer and Videogames Marketplace - Report No. 83-3, December 1983. Boston: The Yankee Group. p. 6.
  78. ^ Reimer, Jeremy. "Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures". Retrieved March 29, 2015.; Leitenberger, Bernd (2012). Computergeschichte(n) [Computer Stories] (1st ed.). Books on Demand. p. 297. ISBN 978-3-7357-8210-6.
  79. ^ "FPGA Atari 800XL". Archived from the original on December 24, 2014. Retrieved April 9, 2015.
  80. ^ Reschke, Julian; Wiethoff, Andreas (1986). Das Atari Profibuch [The Atari Professional Book] (2nd ed.). Sybex Verlag. pp. 201–214.
  81. ^ Eichler; Grohmann (1984). Atari Intern (1st ed.). Data Becker. p. 74.
  82. ^ Eichler; Grohmann (1984). Atari Intern (1st ed.). Data Becker. p. 41.
  83. ^ Small, David; Small, Sandy; Bank, George (1983). The Creative Atari. Creative Computing Press. p. 10. ISBN 0-916688-34-8.
  84. ^ "Atari Chips" [Atari Chips]. Retrieved April 10, 2015.
  85. ^ Reschke, Julian; Wiethoff, Andreas (1986). Das Atari Profibuch [The Atari Professional Book] (2nd ed.). Sybex Verlag. p. 130.
  86. ^ Atari, Inc. (1982). Technical Reference Notes – System Memory Utilization. pp. 31–33.
  87. ^ Atari, Inc. (1982). Technical Reference Notes – Configurations. p. 25.
  88. ^ Atari, Inc. (1982). Technical Reference Notes – Configurations. p. 28.
  89. ^ Eirich, Dietmar (1985). Computer Peripherie [Computer Peripherals]. Munich: Heyne. pp. 51–53. ISBN 3-453-47058-3.
  90. ^ User's Handbook to the Atari Computer. p. 14.
  91. ^ Carl M. Evans: Tale of Two Circuits. In: Antic. Dezember 1982/Januar 1983, S. 63.
  92. ^ Atari, Inc. (1982). Technical Reference Notes – Configurations. p. 27.
  93. ^ "Atari 810 Disk Drive". Analog Computing. No. 1. 1981. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  94. ^ Goldberg, Marty; Vendel, Curt (2012). Atari Inc. Business is Fun. Syzygy Company Press. p. 478.
  95. ^ "Introducing the PERCOM Alternative to ATARI Disk Storage". Antic. August 1982. p. 5. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  96. ^ Lawrence, Winston (1982). "Hardware Review: Percom Double Density Disk Drive". Analog Computing. No. 7. p. 57. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  97. ^ Rana Systems (March 1983). "Introducing the RANA 1000 disk drive". Byte Magazine. p. 48. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  98. ^ Astra Systems (July 1983). "Look what we have for your Atari Computer". Antic. p. 39. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  99. ^ DeWitt, Robert (January 1984). "Printer Survey". Antic. p. 53. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  100. ^ Moriarty, Brian (1982). "Hardware Review: The Voicebox". Analog Computing. No. 8. p. 34. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  101. ^ Moriarty, Brian (1982). "Stereo Graphics Tutorial". Analog Computing. No. 7. p. 70. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  102. ^ Myotis Systems (February–March 1983). "The Apprentice". Antic. p. 38. Retrieved August 13, 2025.
  103. ^ Meyer 1983, pp. 102–106.
  104. ^ Duberman 1983, pp. 118–122.
  105. ^ Poole, Lon; McNiff, Martin; Cook, Steven (1983). Mein ATARI Computer – Der Schlüssel zum ATARI-Privatcomputer [My ATARI Computer – The Key to the ATARI Personal Computer] (5th ed.). Te-wi Verlag GmbH. pp. 1–9. ISBN 3-921803-18-7.
  106. ^ TG Products 1983, p. 32.
  107. ^ Kurta Corporation 1981, p. 17.
  108. ^ Spencer 1983, p. 112.
  109. ^ De Vore 1983, p. 118.
  110. ^ Atto-Soft 1983, p. 19.
  111. ^ Microtronics, Inc. 1983, p. 10.
  112. ^ Randall 1982, p. 72.
  113. ^ Adamson 1983, pp. 28, 30.
  114. ^ Pelczarski 1981, pp. 24, 26.
  115. ^ Compute! 1981, p. 12.
  116. ^ "Hardware/Briefs". InfoWorld. 3 (3): 25. February 16, 1981. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  117. ^ Adamson 1983, p. 30.
  118. ^ Compute! 1981b, p. 160.
  119. ^ Adamson 1983, p. 28.
  120. ^ Compute! 1983, p. 285.
  121. ^ Eirich, Dietmar (1989). Computer zum Nachschlagen [Computer for Reference]. Compact Verlag. p. 212. ISBN 3-8174-3564-9.
  122. ^ Reschke, Julian; Wiethoff, Andreas (1986). Das Atari Profibuch [The Atari Professional Book] (2nd ed.). Sybex Verlag. p. 125.
  123. ^ Reschke, Julian (February 1987). "Bibomon – der Wolf im Schafspelz" [Bibomon – the Wolf in Sheep's Clothing]. Happy Computer: 21. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  124. ^ Stanton, Jeffrey; Wells, Robert P.; Rochowansky, Sandra; Mellin, Michael (1984). Atari Software 1984 (1st ed.). The Book Company. pp. 353–359.
  125. ^ "New Products – The Atari 400 Computer System". Atari Connection: 7. September 1981. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
    White, Jerry (June 1981). "Software Review: BASIC A+". Analog Computing: 29. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  126. ^ Stanton, Jeffrey; Wells, Robert P.; Rochowansky, Sandra; Mellin, Michael (1984). Atari Software 1984 (1st ed.). The Book Company. pp. 350–352.
  127. ^ Stanton, Jeffrey; Wells, Robert P.; Rochowansky, Sandra; Mellin, Michael (1984). Atari Software 1984 (1st ed.). The Book Company. pp. 360–363.
  128. ^ Patterson, Carl J. (1982). "Software Review: Data-Soft Lisp". Analog Computing (8): 39. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  129. ^ Tillman, Raymond T. (1983). "Atari Pascal – A Good Product?". Analog Computing (11): 42. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  130. ^ Stanton, Jeffrey; Wells, Robert P.; Rochowansky, Sandra; Mellin, Michael (1984). Atari Software 1984 (1st ed.). The Book Company. pp. 210–241.
  131. ^ Zucconi, George (May 1984). "A computer in the Doctor's waiting room" [A computer in the Doctor’s waiting room]. Byte Magazine: 108. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  132. ^ Converse, Teddi (Summer 1982). "Home Computerized Photography". Atari Connection: 17. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  133. ^ Lee, Brian (June 1983). "Filling the GAP". Antic: 14. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  134. ^ Sickert, Julie (September 1983). "Computer Museum". Antic: 22. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  135. ^ Stanton, Jeffrey; Wells, Robert P.; Rochowansky, Sandra; Mellin, Michael (1984). Atari Software 1984 (1st ed.). The Book Company. pp. 263–303.
  136. ^ Stanton, Jeffrey; Wells, Robert P.; Rochowansky, Sandra; Mellin, Michael (1984). Atari Software 1984 (1st ed.). The Book Company. p. 12.
  137. ^ Jeffrey Stanton, Robert P. Wells, Sandra Rochowansky, Michael Mellin: Atari Software 1984. The Book Company, 1. Auflage 1984, S. 12.
  138. ^ Schäfer, Winnie (2009). Spielkonsolen und Heimcomputer [Game Consoles and Home Computers] (3rd extended ed.). Gameplan. p. 34.
  139. ^ The Best Atari Software. Publications International. 1984. ISBN 0-517-42474-6.
  140. ^ Lange, Andreas. "Was Archive, Museen und Bibliotheken von Gamern lernen können – und umgekehrt" [What Archives, Museums, and Libraries Can Learn from Gamers – and Vice Versa]. Retrieved February 23, 2014.
  141. ^ Kohler, Chris (2005). "Hack #59". Retro Gaming Hacks. O’Reilly.
  142. ^ Kanold, Gunnar (2014). "Foreword". Basic Tenliners 2014.
  143. ^ Victor, John (Fall 1979). "Atari Computers: The Ultimate Teaching Machines?". Compute!: 62. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  144. ^ Victor, John (Fall 1979). "Atari Computers: The Ultimate Teaching Machines?". Compute!: 62. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  145. ^ Victor, John (February 1980). "Atari BASIC". Compute!: 76. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  146. ^ Victor, John (Fall 1979). "Atari Computers: The Ultimate Teaching Machines?". Compute!: 64. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  147. ^ Lindsay, Len (April 1980). "Atari in Perspective". Creative Computing: 22. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  148. ^ Osborne, Adam (May 26, 1980). "From the Fountainhead West Coast Computer Faire". InfoWorld: 7. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  149. ^ Blundell, Greggory S. (January 1983). "Personal Computers in the Eighties". Byte Magazine: 171. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  150. ^ Pournelle, Jerry (July 1982). "Computers for Humanity". Byte Magazine: 400. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  151. ^ Fox, David; Waite, Mitchelle (November 1982). "Computer Animation with Color Registers". Byte Magazine: 214. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  152. ^ Mitchell, Ron (July 1983). "Scott Adams: Adventuring with the Atari". Antic: 14. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  153. ^ "Whither Atari". Analog Computing (9): 4–5. 1983. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  154. ^ Bell, Jon (1983). "Editorial". Analog Computing (11): 6. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
  155. ^ Bernstein, Herbert (November 1981). "Test: Atari 400 und 800" [Test: Atari 400 and 800]. Chip: 114–121.
  156. ^ "Die Computer des Jahres" [Computers of the Year]. Chip: 20. December 1981.
  157. ^ Herz, Jürgen (October–December 1982). "Herr Maier macht den Hypersprung" [Mr. Maier Makes the Hyperspace Jump]. Spielbox: 12–18.
  158. ^ Obermair, Gilbert (1983). Heimcomputer Report '84 [Home Computer Report '84]. Heyne. p. 82.
  159. ^ "Atari 400 & 800" [Atari 400 & 800]. Computer Kurs (2): 35.
  160. ^ a b c Tomczyk, Michael S. (January 1985). The Home Computer Wars. Compute!. p. 104.
  161. ^ Peter Herzberg, ed. (1984). Das Heyne Computer Lexikon [The Heyne Computer Lexicon]. Heyne. p. 28.
  162. ^ a b Loguidice, Bill; Barton, Matt (2015). Vintage Games Consoles. Focal Press. p. 56.
  163. ^ Forster, Winnie (2009). Spielkonsolen und Heimcomputer [Game Consoles and Home Computers] (3rd ed.). Utting: Gameplan. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-3-00-024658-6.
  164. ^ "1980: Home Computers". Gamasutra. August 21, 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2015.
  165. ^ Loguidice, Bill; Barton, Matt (2015). Vintage Games Consoles. Focal Press. p. 57.
  166. ^ Allner, Jörg; Allner, Kerstin (2003). Computer Classics. Data Becker. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-3-8158-2339-2.
  167. ^ Schmundt, Hilmar (January 17, 2011). "Super Mario im Museum" [Super Mario in the Museum]. Spiegel</a> Online. Retrieved April 10, 2015.
edit
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Atari 8-bit computers.
This page will be placed in the following categories if it is moved to the article namespace.
Categories:
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:Atari_400&oldid=1306621872"