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Fault-Managed Power
Fault-Managed Power (FMP), defined as "A powering system that monitors for faults and controls current delivered to ensure fault energy is limited" in Article 726 of the 2023 National Electrical Code (NEC).[1], uses advanced fault detection, energy limitation, and functional safety to deliver safe power over significant distances using smaller-gauge wires[2]
FMP systems can transmit substantial power over copper wire pairs, with performance that varies based on distance and wire gauge. These systems can deliver hundreds of watts per copper pair over distances up to 2 kilometers (km), approximately 1.25 miles, using either 16 or 18 AWG copper wire pairs. The power output increases significantly at shorter distances—when using 16 AWG wire, FMP systems can transmit up to 1,500 watts (1.5 kW) at 500 feet and up to 1,000 watts (1.0 kW) at 1,000 feet. This inverse relationship between distance and power output makes FMP systems particularly well-suited for applications requiring high power delivery over moderate distances using existing copper infrastructure.[3]
Higher power levels can be obtained by paralleling multiple channels with some installations such as stadiums or indoor farms deploying over 1 megawatt (MW) on many FMP pairs to hundreds or thousands of loads within a venue. This capability far exceeds the distance limitations of traditional systems like Power over Ethernet (PoE), which are typically constrained to 100 meters and 100 W per cable.
FMP systems are an innovative approach to electric power distribution, designed to enhance safety and efficiency compared to conventional methods. Recognized under industry standards like UL 1400-1[4] and the NEC[1], Article 726, these systems enable the safe transmission of voltages up to 450 volts (V) through advanced fault-mitigation technologies.
Key features include:
- Real-Time Fault Detection: Continuous monitoring identifies abnormalities such as short circuits or ground faults.
- Energy Limitation: Automatically restricts fault-induced energy to non-hazardous levels.
- Rapid Shutdown: Halts power flow within milliseconds upon fault detection.
- Control: Embedded data capability for monitoring and control
- Co-existence in the same conduit or tray as data cables
- Conduit-free installation using ethernet-like installation practices
FMP systems utilize Packet Energy Transfer (PET)[5], a method that ensures safe operation by transmitting power in controlled, discrete packets. This approach minimizes risks even in fault conditions, addressing long-standing challenges of fire hazards, electric shock, and equipment damage.
By integrating safety with high-efficiency power delivery, FMP systems are positioned to modernize infrastructure across industries, including telecommunications, renewable energy, and building automation. Their compliance with rigorous safety standards underscores their potential to redefine electrical distribution networks globally.
Origins
The inventor of FMP is Stephen S. Eaves, founder and CEO of VoltServer, who patented the first FMP system on July 14, 2014, in US Pat No. 8,781,637[6]. Eaves holds numerous patents in the areas of energy storage, power conversion, and fault detection. Packet Energy Transfer technology involves the transmission of electrical power and data in discrete packets, coupled with real-time fault monitoring, enabling the system to immediately shut down in response to hazards such as short circuits or accidental human contact.
VoltServer was incorporated by Eaves in 2011, and the first commercial FMP system was installed in 2014 at Washington State University Martin Stadium commissioned by AT&T for a Distributed Antenna System (DAS). The installation was supervised by project manager Robert Bridges. FMP systems have since transformed power distribution in large-scale environments, including stadiums, office buildings, and telecommunications networks by prioritizing safety, efficiency, and scalability.
Panduit Corporation released the first competing FMP system on October 30, 2023. Other market entrants that are currently generating intellectual property or in the process of qualifying FMP products include Cence, Cisco, Corning and EnerSys/Alpha.
The earliest cable manufacturer to support FMP was Belden, which continues to maintain and expand its product offerings. Since then, multiple cable manufacturers including Commscope, Electrowire, Prysmian, Remee, Southwire and others have produced application-specific cable products for FMP.
Packet Energy Transfer
Packet Energy Transfer (PET)[5] is a novel power distribution technology that delivers significant electrical power over long distances while maintaining safety through sophisticated fault management.
The system operates by splitting energy into discrete packets that are transmitted hundreds of times per second from a transmitter to a receiver. Each PET system consists of a transmitter with semiconductor switches that periodically disconnect the source from the power transmission lines, effectively isolating the load from stored energy through isolation diodes.
The architecture typically employs staggered or interleaved packet transmission across multiple channels to minimize effects on the power system, with transmission lines operating at voltages similar to RFT-V (±190 VDC) but without imposed power limits per circuit. PET systems must be tested as complete units—including power sourcing equipment, transport cables, and powered devices—to ensure precise control of fault energy transfer during human contact events.
Key benefits of FMP systems
FMP systems provide a range of advantages that position them as a transformative solution in modern power distribution. One of the primary benefits is enhanced safety: FMP utilizes real-time fault detection and rapid shutdown capabilities, which significantly reduce the risk of fire and electric shock. The technology also supports efficient, high-voltage power transmission over long distances, resulting in lower energy losses and reduced material costs. FMP systems are highly flexible and scalable, making them suitable for a wide variety of applications, including smart buildings and industrial automation. Cost savings are further realized through decreased cabling requirements and simplified installation processes. In addition, FMP promotes sustainability by reducing both energy waste and resource consumption, supporting environmental objectives in large-scale infrastructure developments.
Potential challenges and limitations of FMP systems
Despite their numerous advantages, FMP systems encounter several challenges. Regulatory limitations, such as those outlined in the 2023 NEC[1], prohibit residential installations of FMP and require physical separation from non-limited-energy circuits. The restriction on residential installations is currently expected to be removed in the proposed 2026 revision of the NEC[1]. FMP is allowed to be installed with limited-energy circuits sourced by Class 2 and PoE power sources. Interoperability presents another issue, as FMP transmitters and receivers typically must be sourced from the same manufacturer, raising concerns about vendor lock-in. Additionally, there is resistance within the market, especially from manufacturers of the traditional electrical components that FMP systems are designed to replace. Potential adopters may also approach FMP technology with caution due to its relative novelty.
Fault-Managed Power versus traditional AC power distribution and Power over Ethernet
FMP systems provide several significant advantages over traditional alternating current (AC) power distribution and PoE technologies. Unlike conventional systems that depend on circuit breakers and fuses for protection, FMP continuously monitor circuits in real time and can shut down power within milliseconds upon detecting abnormalities.
FMP can deliver hundreds of watts over distances of 2 km or more using a single pair of #16 AWG conductors and can provide over 2 kW at distances of several hundred feet. The primary limitations on power and distance are determined by factors such as the maximum allowable power dissipation of the cable and the maximum tolerable voltage drop. This performance far exceeds that of traditional PoE, which is limited to 100 W over 100 meters.
FMP systems utilize lightweight, thinner-gauge cables and support simplified installation methods, such as cable trays and J-hooks, which reduce both material and labor costs compared to conventional conduit-based AC distribution. Additionally, FMP includes integrated power monitoring capabilities, eliminating the need for supplemental devices or equipment and resulting in further cost savings compared to traditional systems that require separate power-management infrastructure.
According to the NEC[1], traditional AC power distribution must be separated from data circuits. In contrast, FMP is permitted to share the same channel or cable as data, providing additional flexibility in system design and installation.
Infrastructure applications of Fault-Managed Power
Smart buildings have experienced notable progress in power distribution technologies, enabling efficient operation of building automation systems such as sensors, lighting controls, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices across large facilities. A prominent example—and the first smart building to deploy FMP at—is the Sinclair Hotel in Fort Worth, Texas, after owner Farukh Aslam recognized FMPs potential for building applications[7]. The hotel opened in October 2019 and employs FMP as its primary power backbone infrastructure.
Similarly, the 35-story Circa Casino & Resort in Las Vegas utilizes Digital Electricity®, equivalent to a Class 4 circuit, to supply power to lighting, switches, in-room climate control, and wireless access points, demonstrating the adaptability of these advanced power distribution methods in smart building applications.
In the data center and telecommunications sectors, FMP and related technologies are proving transformative. These systems facilitate the delivery of power to edge computing devices and 5G infrastructure over extended distances, supporting efficient operation of remote servers and network equipment. The adoption of such technologies can lead to significant cost savings, with estimates suggesting that a 6-MW data center could save several million dollars compared to traditional AC power distribution approaches.
Industrial and commercial sectors are also leveraging these advanced systems. Factory floors benefit from integrated control and power delivery to remote machinery, while warehouses and distribution centers use FMP to power operational equipment. These solutions are particularly advantageous for supporting industrial automation, sensors, and control systems in challenging environments where conventional power distribution may be less effective.
In transportation and public infrastructure, FMP and similar technologies are being adopted for a variety of applications. Airports utilize these systems for diverse power distribution needs, and shipping ports employ the technology for equipment power delivery. Additionally, advanced power distribution solutions are increasingly used to power traffic control systems and roadway infrastructure, contributing to the development of smarter and more efficient urban environments.
Security systems also benefit significantly from advanced power distribution technologies, which provide reliable power for security cameras and access control systems across large areas. This ensures continuous surveillance and secure access, even in expansive and complex environments.
Adoption of Fault-Managed Power
The adoption of FMP systems began in 2020, led by the Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS) with support from Underwriters Laboratories (UL) and NEC[1] Code-Making Panel No. 3 (CMP-3). ATIS developed the initial technical requirements, resulting in the publication of ATIS-0600040[8], which established fault energy limitations and testing protocols for FMP systems. UL further advanced the standardization process by drafting UL 1400-1[4], which provides comprehensive safety guidelines for FMP implementation. UL-1400-2 was developed concurrently to support safety standardization of Class 4 cable. Concurrently, Article 726 was incorporated into the 2023 edition of the NEC[1], formally introducing Class 4 circuits as a new standard for power distribution. This collaborative effort among industry leaders and standards organizations has enabled the safe deployment of high-power, fault-limited FMP systems for modern infrastructure applications.
The FMP Alliance[9], an industry organization supporting technology adoption, was formed in April 2024. The founding members are Belden, Cisco, Panduit Corporation, Prysmian, and VoltServer.
The electrical contracting industry including the National Electric Contractors Association (NECA) has supported FMP as an evolution in electricity distribution to improve safety for its workers and the consumers and communities it serves, as well as the efficiency of power delivery. NECA continues to support the advancement and train its constituents as FMP technology proliferates.
NECA’s development of NECA 726, Standard for Installing and Maintaining Class 4 Fault-Managed Power (FMP) Systems, adds to their library of ANSI-Approved standards.
NECA offers a variety of ANSI-Approved performance and workmanship industry standards for electrical construction.
National Electrical Installation Standards (NEIS™) are used by construction owners, specifiers, and contractors to clearly illustrate the performance and workmanship standards essential for different types of electrical construction. NEIS™ are also referenced throughout the National Electrical Code (NEC).
Functional safety
Functional safety in FMP systems involves a holistic approach to guaranteeing both safe and dependable power delivery. As outlined in Section 4 of UL 1400-1[4], FMP systems must adhere to functional safety requirements. Section 4.1.1 specifies that, "To ensure a device’s fail-safe mechanisms are functioning properly and risks are minimized to as low as reasonably practical (ALARP), these assessments are essential for determining or verifying the safety integrity level of safety functions."
To achieve this, FMP systems utilize several protective layers, combining hardware and, where relevant, software elements to identify, control, and reduce potential hazards. At the core of these systems are sophisticated monitoring and control technologies that continually evaluate operational status through software algorithms and/or electronic circuitry. These are complemented by tangible safety features, such as insulated cabling, mechanical protections, and safety interlocks.
Compliance with FMP functional safety requires alignment with one or more internationally recognized standards, such as IEC 60812[10], IEC 61025[11], SAE J1739[12], MIL-STD-1629A[13], IEC 61508-1[14], IEC 61508-2[15], IEC 61508-3[16], ISO 13849-1[17], ISO 13849-2[18], or IEC 62061[19]. These standards mandate specific measures to guard against electrical and mechanical risks and place a strong emphasis on thorough software fault analysis.
Stringent testing protocols are implemented to ensure that system response times are kept below the shock-duration threshold—generally less than 10 milliseconds in low-impedance human contact scenarios. All fault test outcomes must fall within the prescribed AC or DC safety zones, as defined by IEC 60479-1[20] and IEC 60479-2[21]. By integrating these various safety mechanisms, FMP systems are designed so that no single failure can jeopardize overall system safety.
How Fault-Managed Power Mitigates Hazards
FMP systems address safety risks by combining sophisticated fault detection, fault-energy restriction, and rapid power shutdown features. These systems constantly oversee electrical circuits for signs of issues such as short circuits, ground faults, or accidental human contact with energized wires. When a fault is identified, FMP systems can stop or restrict the flow of power within milliseconds, greatly reducing the chances of fire, electric shock, or damage to equipment. In contrast to conventional Class 2 and Class 3 systems that limit total power output, Class 4 FMP systems specifically restrict the energy released during a fault, maintaining safety even at voltages as high as 450 V. This immediate response ensures that conductors remain safe to touch, enabling the reliable and secure delivery of power.
NEC Class 2 and Class 3 Circuit Limitations
FMP systems, designated as Class 4 circuits, overcome the constraints found in Class 2 and Class 3 wiring. Class 2 circuits cap the available power at 100 VA to minimize the risk of fire and electric shock by strictly limiting energy. Class 3 circuits allow for higher voltages but still depend on restricting power to maintain safety.
In contrast, Class 4 FMP circuits do not impose a fixed power limit; instead, they continuously monitor for faults in real time. If an abnormal condition, such as a line-to-line fault, arc fault, or human contact is detected, FMP systems can instantly interrupt power flow, typically within milliseconds. This swift action keeps the energy released during a fault at levels like those of Class 2 circuits, providing protection even at voltages up to 450 V. Through advanced fault detection and precise energy management, FMP technology reduces the dangers of fire and electric shock, enabling the safe transmission of high power over extended distances and supporting the needs of contemporary infrastructure.
Fault-Managed Power System Operation
UL 1400-1[4] provides considerable design flexibility for FMP systems. In one approach, the system transforms conventional AC or DC input into a series of small, digitally regulated energy packets. Each packet typically comprises a 1.5-millisecond pulse of high-voltage DC (at 350V), followed by a 0.5-millisecond pause, resulting in the transmission of around 500 packets every second. The transmitter actively monitors each packet for signs of a fault. Should it detect any irregularities—such as incorrect wiring, short circuits, or accidental human contact—the system instantly ceases the transmission of subsequent packets. This method of packetized energy transfer not only ensures safe, high-capacity power delivery over distances of 2 km or more with standard low-voltage cabling, but also supports the integration of data for monitoring and control within each packet.
On the receiving side, these energy packets are converted back into standard AC or DC power to serve connected devices. Importantly, all critical safety functions are handled exclusively by the transmitter, independent of the receiver or any communication link. The result is a system that is both robust and efficient, capable of supplying up to 1.5 kW per channel while maintaining safety levels on par with traditional low-voltage power systems.
System Components
Power Transmitter:
Also known as Power Sourcing Equipment (PSE), the transmitter converts standard AC or DC power from the grid, UPS, or other sources into a Class 4 power source (up to 450 V). It continuously monitors the circuit for faults—such as short circuits, ground faults, or human contact—and halts or limits power transmission within milliseconds if a fault is detected.
Class 4 Cabling:
Power is transmitted over specialized Class 4 cables designed to meet UL 1400-2[22] standards for insulation and safety. These cables support high-voltage transmission with a safety profile comparable to Class 2 circuits and can be installed alongside data cables, often without the need for conduits, simplifying installation and reducing costs.
Power Receiver:
Also known as the Powered Device (PD), the receiver converts Class 4 power from the transmitter into another AC or DC format suitable for connected loads (e.g., 48 VDC for IoT systems, lighting, or Telecommunications equipment). The receiver may communicate with the transmitter to confirm a safe connection before power transmission begins and may also include fault detection to ensure safety at the load level.
The fault management features of FMP systems ensure that, in the event of a fault, only a controlled amount of energy is released. This significantly reduces the likelihood of fire or electric shock, while still allowing for efficient transmission of high power over extended distances.
Summary
FMP systems, also known as Class 4 power systems, provide comprehensive fault
protection through sophisticated monitoring and control mechanisms. Unlike traditional GFCI and AFCI systems, FMP systems can detect and respond to all types of faults: line-to-earth, line-to-line, in-line arcing, parallel arcing, and resistive faults.
The system actively monitors for human contact faults and controls power delivery to ensure fault energy remains within safe limits.
References
edit- ^ a b c d e f g Cole, George T. (2024-03-04). "Does NFPA 70 (NEC) and NFPA 70E Add Electrical Safety Value to Electric Utilities?". 2024 IEEE IAS Electrical Safety Workshop (ESW). IEEE. pp. 1–11. doi:10.1109/esw52258.2024.10752770. ISBN 979-8-3503-6367-8.
- ^ Lorusso, Dave; Mlyniec, Stanley; Casey, Jonathan (2025-05-13). "Introduction to Fault-Managed Power". 2025 IEEE International Symposium on Product Compliance Engineering (ISPCE). IEEE. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/ISPCE64260.2025.11044905. ISBN 979-8-3315-4132-3.
{{cite book}}:|journal=ignored (help) - ^ "Intro to Class 4 Fault Managed Power Systems" (PDF).
- ^ a b c "UL 1400-1, Outline of Investigation for Fault-Managed Power Systems - Part 1: Safety Requirements.” Underwriters Laboratories. Edition 7. Published Date: February 28, 2023.
- ^ a b S. S. Eaves, “Network remote powering using packet energy transfer” Telecommunications Energy Conference (INTELEC), 2012 IEEE 34th International.
- ^ US8781637B2, Eaves, Stephen S., "Safe exposed conductor power distribution system", issued 2014-07-15
- ^ Aslam, Farukh (Feb 2020). "Developing the Connected Building" (PDF).
- ^ ATIS-0600040 - Fault Managed Power Distribution Technologies – Human Contact Fault Analysis
- ^ "FMP Alliance". FMP Alliance. Retrieved 2025-08-12.
- ^ Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA and FMECA), BSI British Standards, doi:10.3403/30310523u, retrieved 2025-08-12
- ^ Space product assurance. Fault tree analysis. Adoption notice ECSS/IEC 61025, BSI British Standards, doi:10.3403/30289790, retrieved 2025-08-12
- ^ Potential Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) Including Design FMEA, Supplemental FMEA-MSR, and Process FMEA, SAE International, doi:10.4271/j1739_202101, retrieved 2025-08-12
- ^ MIL-STD-1629A, Procedures for Performing a Failure Mode, Effects and Criticality Analysis
- ^ IEC 61508-1, Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety-related systems - Part 1: General requirements
- ^ IEC 61508-2, Functional Safety of Electrical / Electronic / Programmable Electronic Safety Related Systems – Part 2: Requirements for Electrical / Electronic / Programmable Electronic Safety Related Systems
- ^ IEC 61508-3, Functional Safety of Electrical / Electronic / Programmable Electronic Safety Related Systems – Part 3: Software
- ^ ISO 13849-1, Safety of machinery — Safety-related parts of control systems, Part 1: General principles for design
- ^ ISO 13849-2, Safety of machinery — Safety-related parts of control systems, Part 2: Validation
- ^ IEC 62061, Safety of machinery - Functional safety of safety-related control systems
- ^ Effects of current on human beings and livestock, BSI British Standards, doi:10.3403/30376583, retrieved 2025-08-12
- ^ Effects of current on human beings and livestock, BSI British Standards, doi:10.3403/30380119, retrieved 2025-08-12
- ^ UL 1400-2 - UL LLC Outline of Investigation for Fault-Managed Power Systems - Part 2: Requirements for Cables
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