Wikipedia

Draft:Mughal–Maratha conflicts


Mughal–Maratha conflicts
Part of Decline of the Mughal Empire

Aurangzeb leads the Mughal Army into the Deccan Wars
Date1657-1803
Location
Indian Subcontinent
Result
Belligerents

Maratha Confederacy

Supported by:

Mughal Empire

Supported by:
Commanders and leaders


Maratha Commanders:

Allied Commanders:

Mughal Commanders:

Allied Commanders:

The Mughal-Maratha conflicts were a series of conflicts between the Mughal Empire and the Maratha confederacy between 1657 and 1803.[2][3][4] The conflict started with the the establishment of the Maratha Kingdom in Deccan by Shivaji I. The Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb then expanded the south resulting in the Deccan Wars This also resulted in war with the Portuguese, who has allied with the Mughal Emperor. The wars resulted in large-scale population displacement and famines in the Indian subcontinent throughout the 17th and 18th centuries.[5][6][7]

The Mughal Empire would decline in the 18th century, resulting in the rise of the Maratha, who reached their greatest extent in 1759.

Over the century, the Maratha Confederacy had divided into various smaller states resembling a polity. Various Maratha expanded through the subcontinent from Bengal to Afghanistan to Southern India. The Marathas would decline after the Third Battle of Panipat. After the Second and third Anglo Maratha Wars, formally ending in 1818.

Early Conflicts

edit
 
jagirs and early Territory of Shahji and Shivaji

Until 1657, The Marathas maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire. Shivaji offered his assistance to then prince Aurangzeb. Dissatisfied with the Mughal response, and receiving a better offer from Bijapur, he launched a raid into the Mughal Deccan.[8]

Attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat

edit
Main articles: Battle of Chakan and Battle of Surat
 
A 20th century depiction of Shivaji's surprise attack on Mughal general Shaista Khan in Pune by M.V. Dhurandhar

Aurangzeb, sent Shaista Khan, in 1660 to attack Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur's army. Khan established his residence at Shivaji's palace of Lal Mahal.[9][10]

On the night of 5 April 1663, Shivaji led a daring night attack on Khan's camp.[11] He, along with 400 men, attacked Khan's mansion, broke into Khan's bedroom and wounded him. Khan lost three fingers.[12][13] Khan took refuge with the Mughal forces outside of Pune.[14] In 1664 Shivaji sacked the port city of Surat, a wealthy Mughal trading centre.[15]

Treaty of Purandar

edit
Main article: Treaty of Purandar (1665)
 
Raja Jai Singh of Amber receiving Shivaji a day before concluding the Treaty of Purandar

In 1665 Aurangzeb sent Jai Singh I besieging Shivaji's forts.[16] Shivaji was later forced to come to terms with Jai Singh.[16] In the Treaty of Purandar, signed by Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June 1665, Shivaji agreed to give up 23 of his forts, keeping 12 for himself, and pay compensation of 400,000 gold hun to the Mughals.[17] Shivaji agreed to become a vassal of the Mughal empire, and to send his son Sambhaji, to fight for the Mughals in the Deccan, as a mansabdar.[18][19]

In 1666, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to Agra along with his nine-year-old son Sambhaji. Aurangzeb planned to send Shivaji to Kandahar to consolidate the Mughal empire's northwestern frontier. However, Shivaji refused[20] and was placed under house arrest. Ram Singh, son of Jai Singh, guaranteed custody of Shivaji and his son.[21] Meanwhile, Shivaji sent most of his men back home and asked Ram Singh to withdraw his guarantees to the emperor for the safe custody of himself and his son. He surrendered to Mughal forces.[22][23] Eventually Shivaji escaped and left Agra.[24][25][26][a]

Later Conflicts Under Shivaji

edit

After Shivaji's escape, hostilities with the Mughals ebbed, with the Mughal sardar Jaswant Singh for new peace proposals.[28] Between 1666 and 1668, Aurangzeb conferred the title of raja on Shivaji. Sambhaji was also restored as a Mughal mansabdar with 5,000 horses. Shivaji at that time sent Sambhaji, with general Prataprao Gujar, to serve with the Mughal viceroy in Aurangabad, Prince Mu'azzam. Sambhaji was also granted territory in Berar for revenue collection.[29]

The peace between Shivaji and the Mughals lasted until 1670, after which Aurangzeb became suspicious of the close ties between Shivaji and Mu'azzam and took away the jagir of Berar from Shivaji to recover the money lent to him a few years earlier.[30][31] In response, Shivaji launched an offensive against the Mughals.[32] Shivaji later sacked Surat for a second time in 1670; the English and Dutch factories were able to repel his attack in the Battle of Vani-Dindori.[33] The Battle of Salher was fought between the Marathas under Prataprao Gujar and Mughal forces under Diler Khan in 1672.[34] The result was a decisive victory for the Marathas.[35]

Deccan Wars

edit
Main article: Deccan wars

After the death of Shivaji in 1680, the Deccan wars were faught between his successors and Mughal forces.[36][37] In the first half of 1681, several Mughal contingents were dispatched to lay siege to Maratha forts. Sambhaji provided shelter to the Mughal Prince Muhammad Akbar, which angered his father.[38] In September 1681, Aurangzeb began his journey to Deccan to conquer the by laying siege to Fort Ramsej. In 1684, Mughal forces attempted to invade Konkan. However, the attack was successfully repulsed by Maratha forces.[39]

On 11 March 1689, Sambhaji was captured and executed in Aurangzeb's camp[40] His death gave the Marathas a newfound zeal and united them against their common foe, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.[41][42]

On April 1683 Sambhaji invaded Portuguese Goa, temporarily occupied many forts.[43] His forces retreated from most Portuguese lands in the Konkan on 2nd January, 1684, to avoid the large Moghal army led by Bahadur Shah I (Muazzam).

After Sambhaji's Death

edit

After his death, Sambhaji was succeeded by his younger brother Rajaram.[44] The Marathas then moved their capital to Jinji in 1691.[45] Mughal Forces under Zulfiqar Ali Khan, assisted by Rani Mangammal, successfully captured Jinji in 1698.[46][47]

In March 1700, Rajaram died. His queen, Tarabai, became an predominant figure in the Maratha military.[44] After the Battle of Satara, Aurangzeb captured Satara,the Maratha capital, As a result the Marathas expanded eastwards into Mughal lands near Hyderabad. Aurangzeb waged continuous war in the Deccan for more than two decades with no resolution and thus lost about a fifth of his army.[48] By 1704, Aurangzeb conquered Torana, Rajgad and some other handful forts mostly by bribing Maratha commanders,[49][50]

On 21 February 1707, Aurangzeb died of a fever.[51] The Maratha Kingdom lost territory as a result of the Deccan war. However, the kingdom retained its independence form the expanding Mughal empire.[52][53] In 1719, Shahu I, received the rights to the Chauth .25% of the revenue, over the six Deccan provinces in exchange for maintaining a contingent of 15,000 troops for the Mughal emperor.[53]

Under the Sayyid Brothers

edit
Main article: Sayyid brothers
 
The Sayyid brothers, Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha and Syed Hussain Ali Khan.

After the Death of Aurangzeb, the Sayyid brothers, two powerful Mughal nobles had a significant influence in the Mughal administration.[54] Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha and Syed Hussain Ali Khan were form Barha family.[55] After his victory at the Battle of Agra in 1713, Emperor Farrukhsiyar on the way from Agra to Delhi, and after arrival at Delhi, conferred many new appointments and new titles on his generals and noblemen. Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha was awarded titles Nawab Qutb-ul-mulk, Yamin-ud-daulah, Syed Mian Saani, Bahadur Zafar Jung, Sipah-salar, Yar-i-wafadar and became Vizier or Prime Minister. Syed Hussain Ali Khan was appointed first Bakhshi with the titles of Umdat-ul-mulk, Amir-ul-Umara, Bahadur, Feroze Jung, Sipah Sardar.[56]

War in Deccan

edit
 
Mughal Empire in 1700

Sayyid Hussain Ali Khan was appointed the Viceroy of the Deccan in 1715.[57] He rejected his predecessor Daud Khan Panni's agreements of tribute to the Marathas.[58] with Farrukhsiyar attempted to assassinate the Sayyids with the help of Maratha forces.[59][60] However, at the Battle of Burhanpur, Daud Khan was defeated and killed by Hussain Khan, who captured Farrukhsiyar's letters to the rebel at his camp.[61]

Hussain Khan declared hostility to the Marathas resulting in continued war.[62][63] In 1717, his general Zulfiqar Beg was defeated and killed by Maratha forces.[64]Hussain Ali Khan sent Muhakkam Singh to punish the Marathas. The army dispersed and fled, after which Hussain Khan ravaged the Maratha territory up to the suburbs of Satara.[65] In 1717, in fear that the Sayyid brothers would replace him, Farrukhsiyar blinded three princes who had the potential to be raised to the throne, including his younger brother.[66] After the death of Farrukhsiyar, the Sayyed brothers had complete control over Mughal nobility placing Rafi-ad-Darajat, Shah Jahan II, and Muhammad Shah on the Mughal throne.[67]

Farrukhsiyar had sent Jai Singh expedition against Churaman Jat, resulting in a siege that lasted 12 months.[68][69] The Sayyids appointed their maternal uncle Sayyid Khan-i-Jahan Barha to the command of a second army, and Jai Singh, in disgust, returned to court, full of hatred towards the Sayyids who had spoiled his laurels.[70] At length Churaman made overtures to the Wazir Qutb-ul-Mulk, offering tribute and surrendered his fortresses.[71] Churaman Jat became a new favorite of the Sayyids, and he helped the Sayyids in their every excursion till his death.[72]

Decline of the Sayyid Brothers

edit
See also: Battle of Balapur

The division of Mughal nobility resulted in the Battle of Balapur in 1720 between the Nizam-u'l-Mulk and Sayyed Brothers.[73]The conflicts unfolded in 1720, following Nizam-u'l-Mulk's triumph over the Sayyid forces, supported by Rajputs, Marathas, and Rohilkhand.[74][73] In 19 June 1720, the battle unfolded between the Narmada River and Burhanpur, at a ___location known as Pandhar. Ghiyas Khan and Iwaz Khan orchestrated a dual-sided attack on the Sayyid forces.[75] Faced with substantial casualties, the Sayyid forces were compelled to retreat from the field of engagement.[73]

Upon learning of the defeat at Pandhar, Alam Ali Khan received advice from the Sayyids to refrain from attacking Nizam until Hussain Ali Khan's arrival. However, he decided to press forward and encountered Nizam at Balapur. Bajirao I engaged the Nizam's troops on 15 July.[76] On the final day of the battle, 31 July, Bajirao was stationed at Nimbgaon in Balapur. Following the defeat of Sayyid-Maratha forces, Bajirao was forced to retreat through Khandesh.[76] The disarrayed remnants of his army fled in panic, leaving their belongings to be plundered by Nizam's forces.[74][77]

After experiencing two consecutive defeats, Sayyid Hussain Ali Khan personally led a march from Delhi towards the Deccan. However, on the journey, he was assassinated by Mir Haider Beg The Sayyids in Delhi launched an attack on the Mughals with the intention of capturing Emperor Muhammad Shah. But they suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of the Mughal forces. As a grim symbol, the head of Hussain Ali Khan was displayed at the entrance of the market.[74] The Emperor issued orders (farmans) to Nizam-ul-Mulk, Girdhar Bahadur, Abdul Samad Khan, and Jai Singh II. In these decrees, he recounted the betrayal by the Sayyid brothers, detailed the events leading to the murder of Husain Ali, and instructed them to unite in support of his throne against Sayyid Abdullah Khan.[74]

Under Bajirao I

edit

War in Bundelkhand

edit
 
Maratha territory in 1733 under Bajirao I[78]

The leadership of Bajirao I saw several conflicts between the Maratha, Mughal and Hyderabadi forces in Bundelkhand and Deccan. This resulted in the rapid expansion of the Maratha confederacy across the Indian subcontinent.[79][80] The Battle of Jaitpur was fought on 1729 when Nawab of Farrukhabad attacked the state of Panna. Chhatrasal appealed to The Peshwa for assistance.[81][82] The Peshwa was victorious and Panna had maintained autonomy from the Nawab. In return, Chhatrasal's position as Raja was restored, and he ceded one-third of his state to the Peshwa.[83]

Maratha-Hyderabad War

edit

The Battle of Palkhed was fought 1728 at the village of Palkhed, near the city of vaijapur, in what is now Maharashtra, India, between the Maratha Confederacy and the Hyderabad State wherein the Marathas defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad.[84] The battle was caused by Bajrao's expansion into Deccan and Southern India.[84] This was followed by Shahu I breaking off negotiations with the Nizam-ul-Mulk about the restoration of the Chauth.[85] The Marathas were victorious.[86] On 6 March 1728, the Treaty of Mungi-Paithan. was signed between the Peshwa and Hyderabad. Shahu I was recognized as the Chhatrapati of the Maratha Confederacy. The treaty also allowed the Marathas to collect Chauth in Deccan.[86]

In the 1730's various conflicts broke out between the Marathas and the Nizam. The Battle of Bhopal was fought on1737 in Bhopal between the Peshwa and the combined army of the Mughal chiefs,[87] Hyderabadi, Rajput kingdoms and the Oudh in which Marathas under the leadership of Peshwa Bajirao I were victorious.[88] On 7 January 1738, a peace treaty known as Treaty of Bhopal was signed in Doraha near Bhopal and the Mughals agreed to pay 5,000,000 Rupees as war expenses to the Marathas.[89][90] These battles played an important role in the expansion of the Maratha confederacy into deccan, contributing to the Marathas becoming a major force in the Indian subcontinent.[90][91]

Confederacy era

edit
 
India in 1751 showing Maratha territory in Yellow

By the early 18th century, the structure of the Maratha state begin to resemble a confederacy under the leadership of the Peshwa. The confederacy was further divided under four Maharajas of Gwalior, Baroda, Indore, and Nagpur.[92] There were also several Nawabs, Rajas, Thakurs, Sardars, and Zamindars under the influence of the Marathas.[93] .

James Grant Duff, describing the Maratha army:[94]


The Battle of Kumher was a conflict between Bharatpur,the Mughal Empire and the Maratha Confederacy. In 1754, on behest of Mughal Emperor Alamgir II, Khanderao laid the siege of Kumher fort of Suraj Mal of Bharatpur, who had the sided with the Alamgir II's adversary Siraj ud-Daulah.[95][96][97] Soon after, Feroze Jung III, the Mir Bakhshi, allied with the Marathas and Jaipur.[98][99] At Kumher, Malhar Rao Holkar's son, Khande Rao, was killed by a swivel-gun. The siege resulted in the combined Mughal and Maratha forces retreating and negotiations were made.[100][101] Suraj Mal didn't oppose the Marathas' incursions into North India, while Raghunath Rao agreed to accept the occupation the Agra subah.[99][98]

War in Southern India

edit
See also: Siege of Jinji, Siege of Trichinopoly (1741), and Siege of Trichinopoly (1743)
 
Southern India between 1746-1760.

In the late 17th century, Mughal and Maratha forces started expanding into Southern India. Shivaji's Half brother Vyankoji Bhosale founded the Thanjavur Maratha kingdom in 1674, taking the title Ekoji I of Thanjavur.[102] Mughal nobleman Zulfiqar Khan founded the Carnatic Sultanate in 1692.[103] This resulted in a series of wars in the region in the 17th and 18th centuries.

The Siege of Jinji, was fought when Zulfiqar Ali Khan and Rajaram I in Jinji they had also ambushed and killed about 300 Mughal Sowars in the Carnatic. The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb then ordered Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung I to protect the supply routes leading to Jinji Fortfor support.[104][105] Rani Mangammal of Madurai allied with Zulfiqar Ali Khan. The siege of Jinji was also the longest siege by any single Mughal Army in recorded history – it lasted for a lingering 8 years.[citation needed]

In 1690, Zulfiqar Ali Khan placed Swarup Singh and Mehboob Khanin command of the Sepoys. Daud Khan was appointed Mir Atish or lead gunner of 60 cannons placed at various locations. Fatah Muhammad was the lead commander of the Rocket artillery consisting of 50 men. Muslim Mappila and Tamils were recruited and good relations were established with Ali Raja Ali II.

Zulfikhar Ali Khan was briefly joined by Aurangzeb's son Prince Muhammad Kam Bakhsh, who later berated Zulfikhar. He then then wrote a letter informing the Mughal Emperor of his son's betrayal, Aurangzeb then sent his trusted vizier Asad Khan for reinforcements.[106] [107]Zulfikhar Ali Khan then led his final fourth assault into Jinji Fort in the year 1698. Zulfikhar Ali Khan the fort and Rajaram himself fled to Vellore.[108]

Further conflicts in Southern India also took place in thr 18th century. The Siege of Trichinopoly in 1741 was fought when Raghuji I of Nagpur expanded into Tiruchirappalli, then under the control of the Nawab of Arcot Chanda Sahib.[109] Maratha General Murari Rao assisted Raghuji.[110] Maratha forces were successful and the city of Tiruchirappalli was annexed by Nagpur.[110] The Nizam later captured Tiruchirappalli from the Marathas in 1743.[111][112]

Maratha invasion of Bengal

edit
Main article: Maratha invasions of Bengal
 
Nagpur raided Bengal from 1742 to 1751, later occuping and annexing Orissa.
 
Raghuji I of Nagpur

After the successful campaign in the Carnatic region, Raghuji I of Nagpur led a series of raids in Bengal.[113] There were a total of five invasions between 1742 and 1751.[114] In 1742, Nawab Alivardi Khan successfully repelled the Maratha raids, although Murshidabad and Hooghly was plundered.[115][116] Raghoji attacked and captured Katwa and Hooghly. Alivardi Khan responded by attacking the Maratha camp at Katwa and Bhaskar Pant, the Maratha commander.[117] In 1743 two Maratha armies invaded - one belonged to Raghuji , the other to the Peshwa. Alivardi Khan was subjected to chauth tax after the raid.[118] Later that year, Raghoji occupied Burdwan. [119] In 1745, the Raghoji occupied Orissa to take Katwa. The force of 20,000 horsemen ravaged Murshidabad and moved onwards to Katwa.[117] In the Battle of Burdwan, Alivardi Khan defeated Janoji, Raghoji's son. Bengal was amassed to defend against the invading Maratha forces at Orissa after the dismissal of Mir Jafar.[120] Janoji and Mir Habib enlisted in the army of Afghans at Rani Sarai to fight against Alivardi Khan Alivardi Khan was able to break the Afghan lines and make them retreat through the use of war elephants by his eager generals and was victorious.[121] The further attacks took place in 1748 in Bihar, on Murshidabad in 1750, and in 1751 in Western Bengal.[122] In 1751, the Nagpur signed a peace treaty with the Nawab of Bengal and agreed to never cross the Subarnarekha River.[123]

The Marathas, used irregular units called the Bargis, perpetrated atrocities against the local population of Bengalis and Biharis.[114] Jan Kersseboom, chief of the Dutch East India Company factory in Bengal, estimated that perhaps 400,000 civilians in Western Bengal and Bihar died in the overall conflict.[124][125] Zamindars outside the affected districts and also from the districts that involved this conflict were affected by the Maratha raids.[126]

Historian William Dalrymple quotes the Maharashtra Purana, a contemporary account describing the atrocities committed by the Marathas in Bengal:[127]

They constantly shouted, 'Give us rupees, give us rupees, give us rupees. When they got no rupees, they filled their victims' nostrils with water, or drowned them in tanks. When they demanded money and it was not given to them, they would put a man to death... Bungalows, thatched-roofed houses, Vishnu-mandapas, they burned them all, large and small Every Brahman or Vaishnava or sannyasi whom they saw they killed, and they slaughtered cows and women by the hundreds.

— Maharashtra Purana

Orissa was ceded to the Marathas, and Mir Habib ,who had defected to the Marathas, was made provincial governor .[128][129] Thus de facto Maratha control over Orissa was established by 1751, while de jure it remained a part of Bengal Subah till 1752.[128] In 1752, Nagpur formally incorporated Orissa in their dominion.[129] The Nawab of Bengal agreed to pay Rs. 1.2 million annually as the chauth of Bengal and Bihar, and the Marathas agreed not to invade Bengal again.[113][130] The Nawab of Bengal also paid Rs. 3.2 million to the Marathas, towards the arrears of chauth for the preceding years.[131]

War with the Afghans

edit
Main article: Afghan–Maratha War
 
A 1770 depiction of the Third battle of Panipat

Throughout the 18th century, Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded Northern India.[132] Afghan entered Delhi in January 1757. Rohilla Chief Najib-ud-Daula, was installed as Mir Bakhshi, under Emperor Alamgir II as a Durrani puppet.[133] The Grand Wazir Feroze Jung III then requested the Peshwa Raghunath Rao to Expel Delhi and remove Afghan agents from the Mughal administration.[133][134] As a result, the Battle of Delhi was fought on 11 August 1757 the Peshwa and Najib-ud-Daula, The Marathas successfully occupied Delhi, indirectly through Mughal Emperor, establishing Antaji Mankeshwar as Governor and expelled Afghan Forces[133]

Third Battle of Panipat

edit
Main article: Third Battle of Panipat

The Battle of Kunjpura was fought on 1760 between Maratha and Afghan forces.[135] Abdus Samad Khan, the faujdar of Sirhind, had come to Kunjpura. The Maratha forces were victorous and massacred the Afghan soldiers.[135][136] Mian Qutb Shah, who was responsible for beheading Dattaji Shinde at the Battle of Barari Ghat was executed by the Marathas after their capture of Kunjpura.[137] This further resulted in escalations between the Maratha and Afghan forces.[135] Ahmad Shah Durrani then led his troops info Panipat to counter Maratha forces[138][138] As a result. the Third Battle of Panipat was fought on 1761 between the Maratha Empire and the Durrani Empire and several Indian allies in the city of Panipat.[139][140] Several high ranking Mughal nobles and several smaller kingdoms in Northern and Western India supported the Afghans against Maratha expansion[141] The Maratha army was led by Sadashivrao Bhau.[140] The initial attack was led by the Maratha left flank under Ibrahim Khan,[142] In the second phase, Bhau himself led the charge against the left-of-center Afghan forces. Ahmad Shah Durrani deployed his Nascibchi musketeers to gun down the deserters who finally stopped and returned to the field.[142]The Marathas, under Mahadaji Shinde, attacked Najib-ud-Daula, who successfully countered Shinde's forces[143][page needed] Maratha forces were further weakining in the battle. Vishwasrao, the Peshwa's son, was killed. The Durrani alliance was victorious resulting in a large portion of Northern India under Durrani influence.[144] The Durranis established the Rohillas under ad-Dawlah and his successors as Mir Bakhshi resulting in the Mughal Emperor becoming a Durrani puppet.[145]

Later Conflicts

edit

On March 1761, Ahmad Shah left for Afghanistan for Punjab resulting in conflicts with the Sikhs.[146][144] After the Battle of Panipat the Rohillas were rewarded by grants of Shikohabad to Nawab Faiz-ullah Khan and of Jalesar and Firozabad to Nawab Sadullah Khan.[147][148]

 
 
Map of India in 1760 (left) and 1765 (right), showing the weakening of the Maratha Confederacy after the Third Battle of Panipat.

The defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat has a significant effect on the Marathas.[144] The battle halted and weakened Maratha power and influence in northern India. The Marathas were also fractured further, resulting in lack of central authority within the Maratha Confederacy.[93] This resulted in the failure to establish an impearl power in the Indian Subcontinent.[92][149] The Mughal Authority in Delhi was also under the influence of the Afghans, falling out of favor of the Marathas, further reducing Maratha control over the Indian subcontinent

Ahmad Shah Durrani ,in his letter to Madho Singh, the king of Jaipur, states:[150][149]

The Marathas fought with the greatest valour which was beyond the capacity of other races... These dauntless blood-shedders did not fall short in fighting and doing glorious deeds.... Suddenly the breeze of victory began to blow... and the wretched Deccanis suffered defeat.

— Ahmad Shah Durrani

Zabita Khan, eldest son of Najib-ud-Daula, succeeded him as Mir Bakhshi in 1770.[151] Throughout the late 18th century, there were various conflicts between the Marathas and Afghans the influence over the Mughal throne, Both parties would establish puppet rulers as Mughal Emperor, who were loyal to their side.[152][153]

 
Mahadaji Scindia established Maratha influence over northern India in the 18th century.

In 1771, the forces of the Maratha general Mahadaji Shinde captured Delhi from the Rohillas , resulting in the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II becoming a Maratha puppet.[154][need quotation to verify][155] Shinde was also appointed as the Vakil-i-Mutlaq, of the Mughal Empire.[156] Shinde also had several victories in Northern India re-established Maratha influence in the region.[152] Zabita Khan fled to Oudh, failing to prevent the Sikh occupation of Delhi in 1783.[157] He later died on 21 January 1785 and was succeeded by his son Ghulam Qadir.[158]

Occupation of Delhi in 1788

edit
Main article: Capture of Delhi (1788)
 
Shah Alam II was crowned Mughal emperor two separate times: by Feroze Jung III in 1760 and by the Marathas in 1788.

From 18 July 1788 to 2 October 1788, Ghulam Kadir the son of Zabita Khan occupied Delhi and installed the Mughal prince Jahan Shah as the new emperor.[159] Shah Alam II, the pervious emperor was blinded and disposed[160] The occupation also plundered the wealth of the city of Delhi. According to Jadunath Sarkar, Delhi was ruined the prestige of the empire beyond recovery.[160]

In 2 October 1788 ,Maratha general Mahadji Shinde reoccupied the city, thus placing Delhi under Maratha influence again.[161] As a result, Ghulam Kadir fled the city and escape to Ghausgarh.[162][163]Shinde's forces eventually captured Kadir on in December 1788.[164] Kadir remained in Maratha custody while, Shah Alam II demanded his execution.[165][166] He was later executed at Mathura on 3 March 1789.[166][167]

Shah Alam II was recrowned as the Mughal Emperor in 1788 by the Marathas.[168] Shinde was as appointed as Vakil-i-Mutlaq, placing Delhi under de-facto Maratha control.[162] These events illustrate the complex interplay of politics and religion during late 18th-century India.[162]

Capture of Delhi

edit
Main articles: Second Anglo-Maratha War and Battle of Delhi (1803)

By the 19th Century, Both the Mughal Empire and Maratha Confederacy had declined, giving rise to British colonialism through the East India Company. In 1803 The East India Company under the Gerard Lake and Arthur Wellesley captured the city of Delhi from the Marathas under Daulat Rao Sindhia .[169] This resulted in the East India Company controlling the city of Delhi in 1803.[170] The company retained Shah Alam II and Akbar II as the Mughal Emperor.[171]After 1835 the Emperor was demoted to the title King od Delhi and the Company stopped minting coins in his name. [172] The Mughal Empire Would formally end after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the last Emperor Bahadur Shah II was expelled to Burma.[173] The Maratha Confederacy declined after the second and third Anglo-Maratha Wars.[174] The confederacy formally ended in 1818 and the last Peshwa Baji Rao II was expelled to Bithoor, Wihle the last Chhatrapati Pratap Singh retained as the Raja of Satara.[174][175]

Notes

edit
  1. ^ As per Stewart Gordon, there is no proof for this, and Shivaji probably bribed the guards. But other Maratha Historians including A. R. Kulkarni and G. B. Mehendale disagree with Gordon. Jadunath Sarkar probed more deeply into this and put forth a large volume of evidence from Rajasthani letters and Persian Akhbars. With the help of this new material, Sarkar presented a graphic account of Shivajï's visit to Aurangzeb at Agra and his escape. Kulkarni agrees with Sarkar.[27]

References

edit
  1. ^ a b c Robinson, Howard; James Thomson Shotwell (1922). Mogul Empire. The Development of the British Empire. Houghton Mifflin. p. 91.
  2. ^ Clingingsmith, David; Williamson, Jeffrey G. (2017-12-13). "Deindustrialization in 18th and 19th Century India: Mughal Decline, Climate Shocks and British Industrial Ascent". doi:10.31235/osf.io/jy7u8. Retrieved 2024-05-04. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ^ Ali, M. Athar (May 1975). "The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case". Modern Asian Studies. 9 (3): 385–396. doi:10.1017/s0026749x00005825. ISSN 0026-749X.
  4. ^ "From Medieval to Modern", A History of Christianity in India, Cambridge University Press, pp. 50–67, 1984-02-09, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511520556.006, ISBN 978-0-521-24351-3, retrieved 2024-05-04
  5. ^ Alam, Muzahpar (2013-03-28), "Mughal Power, the Sikhs and Other Local Groups in the Punjab", The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India, Oxford University Press, pp. 136–177, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198077411.003.0005, ISBN 978-0-19-807741-1, retrieved 2025-08-13
  6. ^ Bhambra, Gurminder K. (2025-04-16). "Empires, Famine, and the Significance of the Political Economy of Colonialism: From the Mughal Empire to British Colonial Rule in India". European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie: 1–24. doi:10.1017/S0003975625000050. ISSN 0003-9756.
  7. ^ Chaudhuri, Archisman (2022), "The El Nino of 1685–1687 in Golconda and Northern Coromandel, South Asia: Drought, Famine, and Mughal Wars", Droughts, Floods, and Global Climatic Anomalies in the Indian Ocean World, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 97–125, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-98198-3_4, ISBN 978-3-030-98197-6, retrieved 2025-08-13
  8. ^ Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920, pp. 55–56.
  9. ^ Aanand Aadeesh (2011). Shivaji the Great Liberator. Prabhat Prakashan. p. 69. ISBN 978-81-8430-102-1.
  10. ^ Indian Historical Records Commission: Proceedings of Meetings. Superintendent Government Printing, India. 1929. p. 44.
  11. ^ Gordon 2007, p. 71.
  12. ^ Mahmud, Sayyid Fayyaz; Mahmud, S. F. (1988). A Concise History of Indo-Pakistan. Oxford University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-19-577385-9.
  13. ^ Richards, John F. (1993). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2.
  14. ^ Mehta 2009, p. 543.
  15. ^ Mehta 2005, p. 491. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMehta2005 (help)
  16. ^ a b Gordon 1993, pp. 1, 3–4, 50–55, 59, 71–75, 114, 115–125, 133, 138–139
  17. ^ Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period 1960, p. 258.
  18. ^ Sarkar, History of Aurangzib 1920, p. 77.
  19. ^ Gordon 1993, p. 74.
  20. ^ Gordon 1993, p. 78.
  21. ^ Jain, Meenakshi (2011). The India They Saw (Vol. 3). Prabhat Prakashan. pp. 299, 300. ISBN 978-81-8430-108-3.
  22. ^ Sarkar, Jadunath (1994). A History of Jaipur: c. 1503–1938. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-81-250-0333-5.
  23. ^ Mehta, Jl. Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 547. ISBN 978-81-207-1015-3.
  24. ^ Kulkarni, A. R. (2008). The Marathas. Diamond Publications. p. 34. ISBN 978-81-8483-073-6.
  25. ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2000). Revenge and Reconciliation: Understanding South Asian History. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-81-8475-318-9.
  26. ^ SarDesai, D. R. (2018). India: The Definitive History. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-97950-7.
  27. ^ Kulkarni, A. R. (1996). Marathas And The Maratha Country: Vol. I: Medieval Maharashtra: Vol. II: Medieval Maratha Country: Vol. III: The Marathas (1600–1648) (3 Vols.). Books & Books. p. 70. ISBN 978-81-85016-51-1.
  28. ^ Sarkar, History of Aurangzib 1920, p. 98.
  29. ^ Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920, p. 185.
  30. ^ Sarkar, History of Aurangzib 1920, pp. 173–174.
  31. ^ Murlidhar Balkrishna Deopujari (1973). Shivaji and the Maratha Art of War. Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal. p. 138.
  32. ^ Sarkar, History of Aurangzib 1920, p. 175.
  33. ^ Sarkar, History of Aurangzib 1920, p. 189.
  34. ^ Pradeep Barua (2005). The State at War in South Asia. University of Nebraska. p. 42. ISBN 0803213441.
  35. ^ Jaques, Tony (2006-11-30). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty-first Century [3 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 888. ISBN 978-0-313-02799-4.
  36. ^ G. T. Kulkarni (1967). Maratha War Of Independence 1680-1707 AD. A Thesis submitted to University of Poona for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History.
  37. ^ Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2012), A Concise History of Modern India, Cambridge University Press, pp. 59–60, ISBN 978-1-107-02649-0, Shivaji Bhonsle (1630–80), the pivotal figure in the Maratha insurgency that so plagued Aurangzeb in the Deccan
  38. ^ Puri, B. N.; Das, M. N. (2003). A Comprehensive History of India: Comprehensive history of medieval India. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 208. ISBN 978-81-207-2508-9.
  39. ^ Bendre, V.S. (2013). Chhatrapati Sambhaji (4th ed.). Kolhapur: Parshva Publications. pp. 384, 385, 399, 400.
  40. ^ Gordon, Stewart (1993). The Marathas, 1600–1818. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-511-46874-2. OCLC 268773964.
  41. ^ Bhave, Y. G. (2000). From the death of Shivaji to the death of Aurangzeb : the critical years. New Delhi: Northern Book Centre. p. 60. ISBN 81-7211-100-2. OCLC 46353204.
  42. ^ Osborne, Eric W. (2020-06-24). "The Ulcer of the Mughal Empire: Mughals and Marathas, 1680-1707". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 31 (5). Informa UK Limited: 1002. doi:10.1080/09592318.2020.1764711. ISSN 0959-2318. S2CID 221060782.
  43. ^ "Goa, Marathas and Goencho Saib". 3 December 2023. Archived from the original on 13 December 2023.
  44. ^ a b Pāṭīla, Śālinī (1987). Maharani Tarabai of Kolhapur, C. 1675–1761 A.D. S. Chand & Company. ISBN 978-81-219-0269-4.
  45. ^ Hatalkar, V. G. (1958). Relations Between the French and the Marathas, 1668–1815. T.V. Chidambaran.
  46. ^ "Mughal Empire 1526-1707 by Sanderson Beck". San.beck.org. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
  47. ^ Jacques, Tony (2015-06-26). "Dictionary of Battles and Sieges". p. 395. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 2022-03-31.
  48. ^ Gascoigne, Bamber; Gascoigne, Christina (1971). The Great Moghuls. Cape. pp. 239–246. ISBN 978-0-224-00580-7.
  49. ^ Abraham Eraly (2000). Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals. Penguin Books India. p. 502. ISBN 9780141001432.
  50. ^ Ashvini Agrawal (1983). Studies in Mughal History. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 168. ISBN 9788120823266.
  51. ^ Mehta, Jaswant Lal (2005), Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, ISBN 978-1-932705-54-6
  52. ^ Mehta 2005, pp. 492–494. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMehta2005 (help)
  53. ^ a b Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C. (2008), India Before Europe t, Cambridge University Press, p. 290, ISBN 978-0-521-51750-8, By the time Aurangzeb died in 1707, many forts had been captured, but the Marathas had already fled them, taking as much treasure as possible. They formed roving bands, often acting independently, and raided Mughal territory even across the Narmada river, the traditional boundary between the Deccan and north India.
  54. ^ A., Kolff, Dirk H. (2002). Naukar, Rajput, and sepoy : the ethnohistory of the military labour market in Hindustan, 1450-1850. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52305-2. OCLC 717564639. As another example of such soldiers of marginal peasant origin, the Barha Sayyids, a celebrated troop of soldiers under the Mughals deserve attention. They were said to be the descendants of the families who had, at an uncertain date, moved from their homes in Panjab to a sandy and infertile tract of what is now the eastern part of the Muzaffarnagar district{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ Brennen, L. "A Case of attempted segmental modernisation".
  56. ^ William Irvine (1971). Later Mughal. Atlantic Publishers & Distri.
  57. ^ John F. Richards, Gordon Johnson (1993). The Mughal Empire: Part 1, Volume 5. Cambridge University Press. p. 267. ISBN 9780521566032.
  58. ^ Satish Chandra (2005). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part - II. p. 281.
  59. ^ V. S. Krishnan, P. N. Shrivastav (1969). Madhya Pradesh, District Gazetteers: East Nimar. Government Central Press. p. 70.
  60. ^ Vengalil A. Janaki (1980). The Commerce of Cambay from the Earliest Period to the Nineteenth Century. Department of Geography, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda ; copies can be had from University Publications Sales Unit. p. 84.
  61. ^ John F. Richards, Gordon Johnson (1993). The Mughal Empire: Part 1, Volume 5. Cambridge University Press. p. 267. ISBN 9780521566032.
  62. ^ Jaswant Mehta (2005). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813. Publisher:New Dawn Press, Incorporated. p. 75. ISBN 9781932705546.
  63. ^ John F. Richards, Gordon Johnson (1993). The Mughal Empire: Part 1, Volume 5. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521566032.
  64. ^ Setumadhava Rao Pagdi, P. Setu Madhava Rao (1963). Eighteenth Century Deccan. the University of Michigan. p. 56. ISBN 9788171543670. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  65. ^ Setumadhava Rao Pagdi, P. Setu Madhava Rao (1963). Eighteenth Century Deccan. Popular Prakashan. p. 56. ISBN 9788171543670. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  66. ^ Jaiwant E Paul (2017). Baji Rao: the Warrior Peshwa. Roli Books. ISBN 9789351941200.
  67. ^ The Cambridge Shorter History of India. CUP Archive. p. 457.
  68. ^ Ranbir Sinh (2001). History of Shekhawats. the University of Michigan. p. 30. ISBN 9788186782743.
  69. ^ Ward, Philip (1989). Northern India, Rajasthan, Agra, Delhi: A Travel Guide. Pelican Publishing. ISBN 9781455609710.
  70. ^ Calcutta Review: Volume 52. Indiana University. 1871. p. 335.
  71. ^ William Irvine (1971). Later Mughal. Atlantic Publishers & Distri. p. 326.
  72. ^ Ram Pande (2006). Social and Political History of the Jats, Bharatpur Upto 1826. the University of Michigan. p. 22.
  73. ^ a b c Sharma, S. R. (1999). Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. pp. 697–701. ISBN 978-81-7156-817-8.
  74. ^ a b c d Malik, Zahiruddin (1977). The Reign of Muhammad Shah, 1719-1748. Asia Publishing House. pp. 62–70. ISBN 978-0-210-40598-7.
  75. ^ Cheema, G. S. (2002). The Forgotten Mughals: A History of the Later Emperors of the House of Babar, 1707-1857. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. p. 164. ISBN 978-81-7304-416-8.
  76. ^ a b Dighe, Vishvanath Govind (1944). Peshwa Bajirao I & Maratha Expansion. Karnatak publishing house. p. 9. On 9th June Bajirao effected junction with Alam Ali's at Sawarde in pargana Undangaon. On 15th July he came up with the Nizam's troops near Pohur; on the day of the final action (a 31st July) he was posted at Nimbgaon in Pargana Balapur. Despite Maratha aid Alam Khan went down before his opponent.
  77. ^ Quddusi, Mohd Ilyas (2002). Khandesh Under the Mughals, 1601-1724 A.D.: Mainly Based on Persian Sources. Islamic Wonders Bureau. pp. 70–80. ISBN 978-81-87763-21-5.
  78. ^ Davies, C. Collin (October 1945). "Peshwa Bajirao I and Maratha Expansion. By V. G. Dighe. 7¼ × 5, pp. x + 235. Bombay, 1944". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 77 (3–4): 205. doi:10.1017/s0035869x00099834. ISSN 1356-1863.
  79. ^ Guha, Sumit (2019-12-23), "The Maratha Empire", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-356 (inactive 1 July 2025), ISBN 978-0-19-027772-7, retrieved 2025-05-08{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
  80. ^ Guha, Sumit (2019-12-23), "The Maratha Empire", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-356 (inactive 1 July 2025), ISBN 978-0-19-027772-7, retrieved 2025-05-08{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
  81. ^ SUVRATSUT (2018-01-09). Baji Rao I The Great Peshwa.
  82. ^ Jaques, Tony (2006-11-30). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty-first Century [3 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 483. ISBN 978-0-313-02799-4.
  83. ^ Sardesai, H. S. (2002). "Chapter-65: SHIVAJI-INSPIRATION BEHIND BUNDELA FREEDOM STRUGGLE". Shivaji, the Great Maratha. Cosmo Publications. p. 1093. ISBN 9788177552881.
  84. ^ a b Alamein (Viscount), Bernard Law Montgomery Montgomery of (1972). A Concise History of Warfare. Collins. p. 132.
  85. ^ Alamein (Viscount), Bernard Law Montgomery Montgomery of (1968). A History of Warfare. Collins.
  86. ^ a b New Cambridge History of India. The Marathas - Cambridge History of India (Vol. 2, Part 4).
  87. ^ G.S.Chhabra (2005). Advance Study in the History of Modern India (Volume-1: 1707-1803). Lotus Press. ISBN 978-81-89093-06-8.
  88. ^ Jaques, Tony (2006-11-30). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty-first Century [3 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-313-02799-4.
  89. ^ Bakshi, S.R.; Ralhan, O.P. (2007). Madhya Pradesh Through the Ages. Sarup & Sons. p. 384. ISBN 978-81-7625-806-7.
  90. ^ a b Chhabra, G.S. (2005). Advance Study in the History of Modern India (Volume-1: 1707-1803). Lotus Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-81-89093-06-8.
  91. ^ Sinha H. N. (1954). Rise Of The Peshwas (1954). p. 161.
  92. ^ a b "Rajas of Maratha Confederacy". Britannica History. Retrieved 17 October 2024.
  93. ^ a b Sen (2010), p. 16.
  94. ^ Keene, H. G. The Fall of the Moghul Empire of Hindustan. Vol. VI. pp. 80–81.
  95. ^ Entwistle, A. W. (1987). Braj: Centre of Krishna Pilgrimage (illustrated ed.). E. Forsten. p. 554. ISBN 978-9-069-8-00165. ISSN 0924-8846.
  96. ^ Gupta, Pratik (2014). Maratha Generals and Personalities: A gist of great personalities of Marathas. Pratik gupta. p. 190.
  97. ^ Dabas, Bal Kishan (2001). The Political and Social History of the Jats. Sanjay Prakashan. p. 291. ISBN 978-8-174-5-30455.
  98. ^ a b Dwivedi, Girish Chandra; Prasad, Ishwari (1989). The Jats, Their Role in the Mughal Empire. Arnold Publishers. p. 169. ISBN 978-81-7031-150-8.
  99. ^ a b A Comprehensive History of India: 1712-1772, edited by A. C. Banerjee and D. K. Ghase. People's Publishing House. 1978. p. 496.
  100. ^ Natwar Singh (1981). Maharaja Surajmal (Natwar Singh). p. 53.
  101. ^ Gupta, Hari Ram (2021-06-13). Marathas And Panipat. Panjab University, 1961. p. 22.
  102. ^ Kincaid, Charles Augustus, and Dattātraya Baḷavanta Pārasanīsa. A History of the Maratha People: From the death of Shahu to the end of the Chitpavan epic. Oxford University Press, 1925. 29f.
  103. ^ Richards, J. F. (1975). "The Hyderabad Karnatik, 1687-1707". Modern Asian Studies. 9 (2): 250–251. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00004996. ISSN 0026-749X. JSTOR 311962. S2CID 142989123.
  104. ^ "Mughal Empire 1526-1707 by Sanderson Beck". San.beck.org. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
  105. ^ Jacques, Tony (2015-06-26). "Dictionary of Battles and Sieges". p. 395. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 2022-03-31.
  106. ^ Lal, Muni (1988). Aurangzeb - Muni Lal - Google Boeken. Vikas Publishing House. ISBN 9780706940176. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
  107. ^ Richards, John F. (1995). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521566032. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
  108. ^ "रणरागिणी ताराराणी - Ranragini Tararani by Dr. Sadashiv Shivade - Snehal Prakashan - BookGanga.com". www.bookganga.com. Retrieved 2023-06-07.
  109. ^ Malleson, G. B. (George Bruce) (1909). History of the French in India : from the founding of Pondichery in 1674 to the capture of that place in 1761. University of California Libraries. Edinburgh : J. Grant. p. 89.
  110. ^ a b Malleson, G. B. (George Bruce) (1909). History of the French in India : from the founding of Pondichery in 1674 to the capture of that place in 1761. University of California Libraries. Edinburgh : J. Grant. p. 90.
  111. ^ Regani, Sarojini (1988). Nizam-British relations, 1724-1857. Concept Publication Company. ISBN 978-8-170221-95-1. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
  112. ^ Brackenbury, C.F (2000). District Gazetteer, Cuddapah. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-8-120614-82-6. Retrieved 11 August 2020.
  113. ^ a b Government of Maharashtra (1974). Maharashtra State Gazetteers: Wardha District (2nd ed.). Bombay: Director of Government Printing, Stationery and Publications, Maharashtra State. p. 63. OCLC 77864804.
  114. ^ a b C. C. Davies (1957). "Chapter XXIII: Rivalries in India". In J. O. Lindsay (ed.). The New Cambridge Modern History. Vol. VII: The Old Regime 1713–63. Cambridge University Press. p. 555. ISBN 978-0-521-04545-2. Archived from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 10 February 2019. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  115. ^ Gupta, Brijen Kishore (1966). Sirajuddaullah and the East India Company, 1756-1757: Background to the Foundation of British Power in India. Brill Archive. Archived from the original on 1 February 2024. Retrieved 1 February 2024.
  116. ^ P. J. Marshall (2006). Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 9780521028226.
  117. ^ a b Tony, Jacques (30 November 2006). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges. Greenwood Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0-313-33536-5.
  118. ^ Marshall, P. J. (1987). Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828. The New Cambridge History of India. Vol. II.2. Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-521-02822-6.
  119. ^ Sarkar, Jadunath (1964). Fall Of The Mughal Empire Vol. 1. Orient Longman, Calcutta. pp. 61–75.
  120. ^ Tony, Jacques (30 November 2006). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-313-33536-5.
  121. ^ Chandra, Anil (1978). A Comprehensive History of India: 1712-1772. p. 187.
  122. ^ Habib, I.; Panikkar, K.N.; Byres, T.J.; Patnaik, U. (2002). The Making of History: Essays Presented to Irfan Habib. Anthem South Asian studies. Anthem Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-1-84331-038-9. Archived from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
  123. ^ Nitish K. Sengupta (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib. Penguin Books India. pp. 158–163. ISBN 9780143416784. Archived from the original on 27 February 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2020. Alivardi showed exemplary courage and military skill in every frontal battle that took place between his forces and the Marathas, in each of which, almost without exception, he had the upper hand.
  124. ^ Kirti N. Chaudhuri (2006). The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company: 1660-1760. Cambridge University Press. p. 253. ISBN 9780521031592.
  125. ^ P. J. Marshall (2006). Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828. Cambridge University Press. p. 73. ISBN 9780521028226.
  126. ^ McLane, John R. (25 July 2002). Land and Local Kingship in Eighteenth-Century Bengal. Cambridge University Press. pp. 166–167. ISBN 978-0-521-52654-8.
  127. ^ Dalrymple 2020, p. 73.
  128. ^ a b Sengupta, N. (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib. Penguin Books Limited. p. 156. ISBN 978-81-8475-530-5. Archived from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
  129. ^ a b ড. মুহম্মদ আব্দুর রহিম. "মারাঠা আক্রমণ". বাংলাদেশের ইতিহাস. ২৯৩–২৯৯.
  130. ^ Chatterjee, Gouripada (1987). History of Bagree-Rajya (Garhbeta): With Special Reference to Its Anti-British Role, from Late 18th Century Till the Present Times. Mittal Publications. ISBN 978-81-7099-014-7. Archived from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
  131. ^ Jaswant Lal Mehta (2005). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813. Sterling Publishers Pvt. ISBN 9781932705546. Archived from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  132. ^ Dalrymple & Anand 2016, p. 67: "Few possessors of the Koh-I-Noor have led happy lives, and while Ahmad Shah rarely lost a battle, he was eventually defeated by a foe more intractable than any army..."
  133. ^ a b c Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813
  134. ^ Indian History - Page C-27
  135. ^ a b c Also see Syed Altaf Ali Brelvi, Life of Hafiz Rahmat Khan. pp. 108–09.
  136. ^ Lateef, S M. "History of the Punjab". p. 235.
  137. ^ Singh, Ganda (1959). Ahmad Shah Durrani, father of modern Afghanistan. Asia Publishing House, Bombay. p. 247.
  138. ^ a b Pundit, Casi Raja (1926). Rawlinson, Hugh George (ed.). An Account Of The Last Battle of Panipat. Translated by Brown, James. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9789385509544. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  139. ^ Stewart Gordon (1993). The Marathas 1600-1818:Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 154. ISBN 9780521033169. Archived from the original on 30 July 2023. Retrieved 11 July 2023.
  140. ^ a b Pandey, Badri Dutt (1993). History of Kumaon (English Translated) (Volume 1 ed.). Almora: Shree Almora Book Depot. p. 300. ISBN 81-900 209-4-3.
  141. ^ Pandey, Badri Dutt (1993). History of Kumaon (English Translated) (Volume 1 ed.). Almora: Shree Almora Book Depot. p. 300. ISBN 81-900 209-4-3.
  142. ^ a b Shejwalkar, Trimbak S. (1946). Panipat 1761 (in Marathi and English). Pune: Deccan College. ISBN 9788174346421. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  143. ^ War Elephants Written by Konstantin Nossov, Illustrated by Peter Dennis Format: Trade Paperback ISBN 978-1-84603-268-4
  144. ^ a b c Gupta, Hari Ram (2007). History of Sikhs Vol. 2 - Evolution of Sikh Confederacies (1707-69). New Delhi: ||Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd||. p. 168. ISBN 978-81-215-0248-1.
  145. ^ Sarkar 1952, pp. 34–35.
  146. ^ Ganḍā, Singh (1959). Ahmad Shah Durrani: Father of Modern Afghanistan. Asia Pub. House. p. 264. ISBN 978-1-4021-7278-6. Retrieved 25 August 2010. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  147. ^ Prasad, Alok (2012). "Rohilla Resistance Against Colonial Intervention Under Nawab Faizullah Khan of Rampur (1774-1794)". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 73: 563–572. JSTOR 44156249.
  148. ^ Rule of Shah Alam, 1759–1806 Archived 26 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909, v. 2, p. 411.
  149. ^ a b Sardesai, Govind Sakharam (1946). New History Of The Marathas Vol 2. pp. 444.
  150. ^ "The lost Marathas of third battle of Panipat". India Today. 12 January 2012. Archived from the original on 11 May 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
  151. ^ Sarkar 1950, p. 297.
  152. ^ a b Gaurav, Sarthak; Ranganathan, Thiagu (2023-01-31). Accidental Gamblers: Risk and Vulnerability in Vidarbha Cotton. Cambridge University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-009-27659-7.
  153. ^ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1991). The Maratha Supremacy (2nd ed.). Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhaban. p. 201.
  154. ^ Stewart Gordon (2003). New Cambridge History of India: The Marathas (Vol. 2, Part 4) (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139055666.
  155. ^ Ghosh, D. K. Ed. A Comprehensive History Of India Vol. 9. p. 535.
  156. ^ Chaurasia R.S (2004). History of the Marathas - Google Books. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. x. ISBN 978-81-269-0394-8. Retrieved 24 February 2025. ..... a formidable confederacy was formed by Maratha diplomats during the first Maratha war.........the Peshwa was made Vakil-i-mutlak and Mahadaji Scindhia deputy Vakil-i-mutlak and the real control of Delhi passed into the hands of Mahadaji Scindhia
  157. ^ Singha 2000, p. 26-27.
  158. ^ Sarkar 1952, p. 302.
  159. ^ Sarkar 1952, pp. 317–318.
  160. ^ a b Sarkar 1952, p. 310.
  161. ^ Mehta, Jaswant Lal (2005-01-01). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 595–596. ISBN 978-1-932705-54-6.
  162. ^ a b c Rathod, N. G. (1994). The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia. Sarup & Sons. p. 114. ISBN 978-81-85431-52-9.
  163. ^ The Director Of Archives (1954). Sindhia As Regent Of Delhi (1954). pp. 17–19.
  164. ^ Garg 1996, p. 94.
  165. ^ Sarkar 1952, p. 329.
  166. ^ a b Malik 1982, p. 565.
  167. ^ Sarkar 1952, pp. 329–330.
  168. ^ Dalrymple 2019, p. 304.
  169. ^ Compton, Herbert (1976). A particular account of the European military adventures of Hindustan, from 1784 to 1803. Oxford University Press. pp. 303–305. ISBN 978-0195772272.
  170. ^ Compton, Herbert (1976). A particular account of the European military adventures of Hindustan, from 1784 to 1803. Oxford University Press. pp. 303–305. ISBN 978-0195772272.
  171. ^ Dadlani, Chanchal B. (2018). From stone to paper : architecture as history in the late Mughal Empire. New Haven [CT]. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-300-23317-9. OCLC 1024165136.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ___location missing publisher (link)
  172. ^ "Disciplining Delhi". January 2007. pp. 82–148. doi:10.1002/9780470712856.ch3. ISBN 978-1-4051-5633-2. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  173. ^ Bandyopadhyay 2004, pp. 169–172, Brown 1994, pp. 85–87, and Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 100–106
  174. ^ a b Black 2006, p. 78.
  175. ^ Ramusack, Barbara N. (2007). The Indian princes and their states (Digitally print. version. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 81–82. ISBN 978-0521039895. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:Mughal–Maratha_conflicts&oldid=1306601924"