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User:40bus/Countries by system of government

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In 2075

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Parliamentary systems

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Constitutional monarchies

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These are systems in which the head of state is a constitutional monarch; the existence of their office and their ability to exercise their authority is established and restrained by constitutional law.

Systems in which a prime minister is the active head of the executive branch of government. In some cases, the prime minister is also the leader of the legislature, while in other cases the executive branch is clearly separated from legislature (although the entire cabinet or individual ministers must step down in the case of a vote of no confidence).[1][2] The head of state is a monarch who normally only exercises their powers with the consent of the government, the people and/or their representatives (except in emergencies, e.g. a constitutional crisis or a political deadlock).[a]

Parliamentary republics

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In a parliamentary republic, the head of government is selected or nominated by the legislature and is also accountable to it. The head of state is usually called a president and (in full parliamentary republics) is separate from the head of government, serving a largely apolitical, ceremonial role. In these systems, the head of government is usually called the prime minister, chancellor or premier. In mixed republican systems and directorial republican systems, the head of government also serves as head of state and is usually titled president.

In some full parliamentary systems, the head of state is directly elected by voters. Under other classification systems, however, these systems may instead be classed as semi-presidential systems as presidents are always attached to a political party and may have broad powers (despite their weak presidency).[3] Full parliamentary republican systems with presidents being purely ceremonial and neutral with no broad powers usually do not have a directly elected head of state and instead often use either an electoral college or a vote in the legislature to appoint the president.

Parliamentary republics with directly elected ceremonial heads of state

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Parliamentary republics with indirectly elected ceremonial heads of state

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Non-UN members or observers are in italics.

Parliamentary republics with an executive president

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A combined head of state and head of government in the form of an executive president is either elected by the legislature or by the voters from among candidates nominated by the legislature (in the case of Kiribati),[15] and they must maintain the confidence of the legislature to remain in office. In effect, "presidents" in this system function the same as prime ministers do in other parliamentary systems.

Presidential systems

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In presidential systems a president is the head of government, and is elected and remains in office independently of the legislature. There is generally no prime minister, although if one exists, in most cases they serve purely at the discretion of the president.

Presidential republics without a prime minister

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Non-UN members or observers are in italics.

Presidential republics with a prime minister

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The following countries have presidential systems where the post of prime minister (official title may vary) exists alongside that of the president. The president is still both the head of state and government and the prime minister's role is mostly to assist the president.

Non-UN members or observers are in italics.

Hybrid systems

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Semi-presidential republics

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In a semi-presidential republic a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet, with the latter two being responsible to the legislature. It differs from a parliamentary system in that it has an executive president independent from the legislature; and from the presidential system in that the cabinet, although named by the president, is responsible to the legislature, which may force the cabinet to resign through a motion of no confidence.[21][22][23][24]

Premier-presidential systems

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In a premier-presidential system, the prime minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to the legislature.[25]

Non-UN members or observers are in italics.

President-parliamentary systems

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In a president-parliamentary system, the prime minister and cabinet are dually accountable to the president and the legislature.[25]

Non-UN members or observers are in italics.

Assembly-independent republics

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A combined head of state and head of government (usually titled president) is elected by the legislature but is not held accountable to it (as is their cabinet), thus acting more independently from the legislature.[25] They may or may not also hold a seat in the legislature.

Directorial republic

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In a directorial republic, a council jointly exercises the powers and ceremonial roles of both the head of state and the head of government collectively. The council is elected by the parliament but is not subject to parliamentary confidence during its fixed term. The president is a member of the directorial council in a primus inter pares (first among equals) capacity and has no powers over other members of the directory.

  1. ^ "The Constitution". Stortinget. 4 September 2019.
  2. ^ "Europe :: Norway — The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. 27 June 2022.
  3. ^ Elgie, Robert (2 January 2013). "Presidentialism, Parliamentarism and Semi-Presidentialism: Bringing Parties Back In" (PDF). Government and Opposition. 46 (3): 392–409. doi:10.1111/j.1477-7053.2011.01345.x. S2CID 145748468.
  4. ^ "Bulgaria's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2015" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  5. ^ "Croatia's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2010" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  6. ^ "Czech Republic 1993 (rev. 2013)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  7. ^ "Iceland's Constitution of 1944 with Amendments through 2013" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  8. ^ "Ireland's Constitution of 1937 with Amendments through 2012" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  9. ^ "Moldova (Republic of) 1994 (rev. 2016)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  10. ^ "Montenegro 2007". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  11. ^ "Serbia 2006". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  12. ^ "Singapore 1963 (rev. 2016)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  13. ^ "Slovakia 1992 (rev. 2017)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  14. ^ "Slovenia 1991 (rev. 2013)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  15. ^ a b "Kiribati's Constitution of 1979 with Amendments through 1995" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  16. ^ Constitution (2012). "CONSTITUTION OF THE CO-OPERATIVE REPUBLIC OF GUYANA ACT" (PDF). Parliament of Guyana.
  17. ^ "Marshall Islands 1979 (rev. 1995)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  18. ^ "Nauru 1968 (rev. 2015)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  19. ^ "South Africa's Constitution of 1996 with Amendments through 2012" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  20. ^ "CONSTITUIÇÃO DA REPÚBLICA DE ANGOLA" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 March 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
  21. ^ Duverger (1980). "A New Political System Model: Semi-Presidential Government". European Journal of Political Research (quarterly). 8 (2): 165–187. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.1980.tb00569.x. The concept of a semi-presidential form of government, as used here, is defined only by the content of the constitution. A political regime is considered semi-presidential if the constitution which established it combines three elements: (1) the president of the republic is elected by universal suffrage, (2) he possesses quite considerable powers; (3) he has opposite him, however, a prime minister and ministers who possess executive and governmental power and can stay in office only if the parliament does not show its opposition to them.
  22. ^ Veser, Ernst [in German] (1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's concept: A New Political System Model" (PDF). Journal for Humanities and Social Sciences. 11 (1): 39–60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2017. Retrieved 21 August 2016.
  23. ^ Duverger, Maurice (September 1996). "Les monarchies républicaines" [The Republican Monarchies] (PDF). Pouvoirs, revue française d'études constitutionnelles et politiques (in French). No. 78. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. pp. 107–120. ISBN 2-02-030123-7. ISSN 0152-0768. OCLC 909782158. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
  24. ^ Bahro, Horst; Bayerlein, Bernhard H.; Veser, Ernst [in German] (October 1998). "Duverger's concept: Semi-presidential government revisited". European Journal of Political Research (quarterly). 34 (2): 201–224. doi:10.1111/1475-6765.00405. S2CID 153349701. The conventional analysis of government in democratic countries by political science and constitutional law starts from the traditional types of presidentialism and parliamentarism. There is, however, a general consensus that governments in the various countries work quite differently. This is why some authors have inserted distinctive features into their analytical approaches, at the same time maintaining the general dichotomy. Maurice Duverger, trying to explain the French Fifth Republic, found that this dichotomy was not adequate for this purpose. He therefore resorted to the concept of 'semi-presidential government': The characteristics of the concept are (Duverger 1974: 122, 1978: 28, 1980: 166):
    1. the president of the republic is elected by universal suffrage,
    2. he possesses quite considerable powers and
    3. he has opposite him a prime minister who possesses executive and governmental powers and can stay in office only if parliament does not express its opposition to him.
  25. ^ a b c Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns". French Politics. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087.
  26. ^ "Poland 1997 (rev. 2009)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
  27. ^ Veser, Ernst [in German] (23 September 1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept — A New Political System Model" (PDF). Department of Education, School of Education, University of Cologne, zh. pp. 39–60. Retrieved 21 August 2017. Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard, he recognizes Duverger's pléiade as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87).
  28. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
  29. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). French Politics. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. Retrieved 21 August 2017. Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. In these cases, while the government is fully accountable to Parliament, it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account.
  30. ^ McMenamin, Iain. "Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland" (PDF). School of Law and Government, Dublin City University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  31. ^ [26][27][28][29][30]
  32. ^ Zaznaev, Oleg (2005). "Атипичные президентские и полупрезидентские системы" [Atypical presidential and semi-presidential systems]. Uchenyye Zapiski Kazanskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta (in Russian). 147 (1): 62–64. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
  33. ^ Leubnoudji Tan Nathan (4 October 2023). "Chad's Proposed New Constitution: Between Hopes for Refoundation and an Uncertain Future". ConstitutionNet. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
  34. ^ "Micronesia (Federated States of)'s Constitution of 1978 with Amendments through 1990" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 11 January 2020.


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