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India
editPlanned Revisions (note: create sections once substantial information has been supplied)
Tracing the History of Colorism in India
As mentioned prior, there is little background provided when discussing the origins of colorism. More depth needs to be placed in this section, including connections of past occurrences to present-day issues. Elaboration needs to be made on the effects of European colonialism on Indian societal standards; this is only briefly discussed but is a significant factor in explaining skin color theory. Its presence in the article is underdeveloped and can be supplemented with research from various academic publications.
Sources
Thappa, D., & Malathi, M. (2014). Skin color matters in India. Pigment International, 1(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.4103/2349-5847.135419 (This article slightly details the history of colorism's conception.)
Iliescu, F. M., Chaplin, G., Rai, N., Jacobs, G. S., Basu Mallick, C., Mishra, A., Thangaraj, K., & Jablonski, N. G. (2018). The influences of genes, the environment, and social factors on the evolution of skin color diversity in India. American Journal of Human Biology, 30(5), e23170. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.23170 (This publication expands on points made in the previous paper. It delves deeper into European colonization and influences.)
Dixon, A. R., & Telles, E. E. (2017). Skin Color and Colorism: Global Research, Concepts, and Measurement. Annual Review of Sociology, 43(1), 405–424. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053315 (This publication expands on points made in the first paper. It delves deeper into European colonization and influences.)
Sub-category: Relation to the Caste System within India
The caste system has long been known as one of the most divisive forces within India, so much so that its effect have been compared to other severe instances of racial discrimination in other countries as well. There needs to be more elaboration on the caste system and its interplay with colorism in the country.
Sources
Jayawardene, S. M. (2016). Racialized Casteism: Exposing the Relationship Between Race, Caste, and Colorism Through the Experiences of Africana People in India and Sri Lanka. Journal of African American Studies, 20(3–4), 323–345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-016-9333 (This publication examines the interplay between the caste system and colorism. It explains how the two interact hand in hand, and how the caste system has played a role in developing colorism in India.)
Bibliography
Singh, Indervir. 2012. "Social Norms and Occupational Choice: The Case of Caste Systems in India." Indian Journal of Economics and Business 11 (2). http://ezproxy.rice.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/social-norms-occupational-choice-case-caste/docview/1629921284/se-2?accountid=7064.
Societal Impacts of Colorism
I want to explore the societal impacts of colorism through the experiences of those who face discrimination in their everyday lives, not necessarily from a job or labor standpoint, but from a social out-casting standpoint. Colorism is pervasive in its ability to divide those within the country, even within a state, to the point where interactions between those with darker skin tones is viewed as illicit and not allowed by those with lighter skin tones. Many academic publications support this finding, including these sources below. I will be sure to find more specified and relevant papers, but these provide a broader view of the disadvantages I believe should be elaborated on.
Sources
Kukreja, R. (2021). Colorism as Marriage Capital: Cross-Region Marriage Migration in India and Dark-Skinned Migrant Brides. Gender & Society, 35(1), 85–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243220979633 (This source emphasizes the impacts of colorism on marriage, particularly for women.)
Sims, C., & Hirudayaraj, M. (2015). The Impact of Colorism on the Career Aspirations and Career Opportunities of Women in India. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 18(1), 38–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422315616339 (This source elaborates on the labor market and how dark-skinned individuals face discrimination and unequal opportunities. While the article primarily details women, the data can be extrapolated to men as well.)
Mukherjee, S. (2020). Darker shades of “fairness” in India: Male attractiveness and colorism in commercials. Open Linguistics, 6(1), 225–248. https://doi.org/10.1515/opli-2020-0007 (This paper examines the effects of colorism in everyday media, stressing how commercials and television play a role in setting standards for skin color and discrimination. They serve as precedence for future generations.)
Wardhani, B., Largis, E., & Dugis, V. (2017). Colorism, Mimicry, and Beauty Construction in Modern India. Jurnal Hubungan Internasional, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.18196/hi.62118 (This publication closely examines the effects of colorism on the beauty sector, and how racism is pervasive within the sector, even today. Similar to the points made for colorism in television.)
Expanding on Variations of Colorism in Different Parts of India
Colorism varies throughout India in its effects. Although light skin is typically seen as the norm for beauty and a goal to strive for, different regions of India see varying genetic makeups, and are thus subjected to varying levels of colorism. While Northern Indians are typically of Indo-Aryan descent, South Indians hail from the Dravidian bloodline; typically, the latter possess darker skin, and so in these parts of India, skin color theory plays a slightly different role in society in terms of its effects and its repercussions.
Sources
Shroff, H., Diedrichs, P. C., & Craddock, N. (2018). Skin Color, Cultural Capital, and Beauty Products: An Investigation of the Use of Skin Fairness Products in Mumbai, India. Frontiers in Public Health, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00365 (This paper focuses on colorism in Mumbai, elaborating on the uses of skin lightening products and their adverse affects on health and perceptions in society.)
Dixon, A. R., & Telles, E. E. (2017). Skin Color and Colorism: Global Research, Concepts, and Measurement. Annual Review of Sociology, 43(1), 405–424. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053315 (This publication examines colorism in various parts of India in a broader context from region to region, while contrasting it against the colorism seen throughout the world. This is useful because the existing article has descriptions of other countries involved as well, so this serves as a solid base for further understanding.)
India (Draft)
The implications of colorism in India have been apparent since the nation's conception. The legacies of Mughal, Northern and European colonial rule on the Indian subcontinent have influenced the modern relations between light skin and power dynamics. Multiple studies have concluded that preferences for lighter skin in India were historically linked to both the Indian caste system and the rule of Persian, Mughal and European powers. Hinduism's influence also must be considered. The Hindu social hierarchy emphasized that those belonging to higher castes typically bore lighter skin tones than those in lower castes. Therefore, they are aligned advantageously in society. Colorism in India was also fueled by the attitudes of Europeans towards Indians, who favored the lighter-skinned Northern Indians compared to the darker-skinned people of the Deccan for administrative positions and other prominent social positions; in turn, power was conceptually intertwined with lighter skin color. It turns out further that, even in South India, rich people often tend to be light-skinned. This was often influenced by the "Aryan invasion" theory, which was a theory which postulated that Northern Indians were actual Aryans who had migrated to the subcontinent and conquered it thousands of years ago. These Aryans attempted to establish a social hierarchy in order to preserve the differences they held between themselves and the original Indians who inhabited the subcontinent. This, in turn, generated the caste system, which grew to encompass economic standing in addition to societal positioning. European officials were also influenced by existing prejudices, as many Northern Indians looked down upon Southern Indians and held them with disdain.
This sentiment continues to remain. A majority of South Indians hail from the Dravidian ethnolinguistic group, who typically display darker skin tones than Indo-Aryans. There are societal implications to colorism, many of which severely debilitate the socioeconomic mobility of darker-skinned individuals in India. These can play out in gender stereotyping and regional discrimination. Studies of the Melanin Index (MI) in individuals across regions show that there are variations in skin color, which contribute to the level of discriminations darker-skinned individuals face in these respective regions. Particularly in North India, dark-skinned individuals are often viewed as "dirty" and of a lower status than their lighter-skinned counterparts; this is not exclusive to North India, but is especially prevalent regionally. In the state of Maharashtra, a group of young tribal[when defined as?] girls trained to be flight crew through a government scholarship program that aimed to empower women; however, the program seems to have actually disempowered darker-skinned women. The majority of girls were denied employment due to their darker skin tone. A few of those women obtained jobs, but only as out-of-sight ground crew. This inherent racism further fuels the notion that skin color lightness is often associated with improved living conditions and standard of life. This typically affects women to a greater extent than men, as gender rights in India are not particularly progressive and often limit individuals in working and social life. This is an example of two cleavages which fuel one another (see Intersectionality) within the nation's borders. Men with darker skin tones are often able to, in a societally-accepted manner, marry women of lighter skin tones. However, darker skinned women do not possess the same privilege as men. This is largely an effect of the patriarchal institutions that still riddle India to this day.
Other forms of colorism in India can be seen in the cosmetic industry, where "fairness" creams meant to lighten skin are popular, and in the Bollywood industry, where the majority of actors and actresses hired are light-skinned, and actresses are often photoshopped to appear lighter. Skin lightening is shown to have significant detrimental effects on both mental and physical health, particularly for women, who are more heavily burdened by men in relation to this issue. It weighs a burden on one's mental health in a societal setting; users of skin creams, on average, continue to remain dissatisfied with their complexion even after using the product. In terms of physical harm, unregulated products can contain harmful chemicals which can cause dermatitis, chemical burns, and in severe cases, increase the likelihood of skin cancers and melanomas. As these mechanisms interplay with the presence of existent capitalistic institutions that control much of the modern world, it is no secret that the skin-lightening industry benefits capitalism and generates revenue.
In the wake of the murder of George Floyd, the debate about colorism and skin tone in India has been discussed in several media outlets, and as part of the general critique a big Indian matchmaking website, Shaadi.com, has removed a filter where people could use to mark skin color preferences for their potential partner.